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THE 


MILITARY    SYSTEM 

• 

OF  THE  ROMANS 


BY 

ALBERT  HARKNESS,  LL.D. 


FROM  HIS  REVISED  EDITION  OF  CAESAR'S  COMMENTARIES 
ON   THE   GALLIC    WAR 


ILLUSTRATED 


or  THE 
I   UNIVERSITY  } 


NEW  YORK 
D.    APPLETON   AND    COMPANY 

1887 


a  2-5 


COPYRIGHT,  1886,  1887, 
BY    ALBERT    BARENESS. 


NOTE. 

THIS  pamphlet  contains  the  new  matter  added  to  the 
recently  revised  edition  of  Harkness's  CAESAR'S  COMMEN- 
TARIES, and  consists  of  the  interesting  chapter  on  the 
Military  System  of  the  Romans,  with  diagrams  and  plans 
of  military  operations  in  the  time  of  Caesar,  a  series 
of  valuable  maps,  descriptive  of  the  Gallic  Wars,  and 
colored  plates,  illustrating  various  implements  of  war  used 
by  the  Romans. 

It  is  published  separately,  in  order  that  those  having 
the  former  editions  of  Caesar  may  procure  this  new  ma- 
terial in  an  inexpensive  form.  Classes  will  be  supplied 
at  special  rates  on  application. 

D.  APPLETON  &  Co. 

NEW  YORK,  January  12,  1887. 


130550 


OFTHC 

(   UNIVERSITY  ) 
or 


THE 


MILITAEY  SYSTEM  OF  THE  ROMANS, 


1.  THE  Roman  legion,  legio^  was  an  organized  body  of 
Roman  soldiers.     It  contained  originally  3,000  infantry  and 
300  cavalry;  but  its  numerical  strength  was    subsequently 
increased.     In  the  time  of  Caesar  it  consisted  entirely  of 
heavy-armed  infantry,  and  probably  numbered  from  3,500 
to  5,000  men.1 

CAESAR'S  ARMY  IN  GAUL. 

2.  Caesar's  army  in  Gaul  consisted  of  two  distinct  parts, 
the  Roman  legions  and  the  auxiliaries. 

1.  The  Roman  legions  consisted  of  heavy-armed  soldiers.2 

2.  The  auxiliaries,3  consisting  of  foreign  soldiers  of  vari- 
ous nationalities,  served  either  as  cavalry 4  or  as  light-armed 
infantry.5 

3.  The  entire  force  at  the  command  of  Caesar  during  his 
Gallic   campaigns   seldom,    if   ever,   exceeded   70,000   men. 
Beginning  his  work  with   a  single  legion,  the  tenth,  after- 
wards so  famous  in  the  Gallic  wars,  he  proceeded  at  once  to 
raise  re-enforcements,  and  soon  found  himself  at  the  head  of 

1  A  legion  whose  numbers  were  fully  up  to  the  normal  standard  was  called 
legio  plenissima  and  probably  contained  about  5,000  men.    Veteran  legions  weak- 
ened by  losses  in  battle  were'considerably  below  this  standard. 

2  In  general,  the  legions  were  composed  of  Roman  citizens. 

3  Some  of  these  were  armed,  equipped,  and  disciplined  according  to  the  Roman 
method,  while  others  retained  their  native  arms. 

4  Caesar's  cavalry  was  composed  chiefly  of  Gauls;   but  it  contained  a  few 
Germans  and  Spaniards. 

6  Of  the  auxiliary  infantry,  the  Balearian  archers  and  the  Cretan  slingers 
were  the  most  noted. 

(XXV) 


XXVI  MILITARY    SYSTEM 

an  army  consisting  of  six  legions  and  a  force  of  auxiliaries 
nearly  20,000  strong. 

4.  The  numerical  strength  of  Caesar's  army  varied  some- 
what from  year  to  year ;  but  he  generally  had  in  his  service 
about  5,000  auxiliary  cavalry  and  from  15,000  to  20,000 
auxiliary  infantry.  The  following  is  a  general  estimate  of 
the  forces  at  his  command  during  the  seven  successive 
campaigns  described  in  the  Commentaries. 

1.  In  campaign  I.,  58  B.  C.,  six  legions,  and  about  20,000 
auxiliaries,  —  cavalry  and  infantry;   in  all,  from   40,000  to 
50,000  men.1 

2.  In  campaigns  II.,  III.,  and  IV.,  57,  56,  and  55  B.  C., 
eight  legions,  with  the  usual  force  of  auxiliaries ;  in  all,  from 
50,000  to  60,000  men.2 

3.  In  campaign  V.,  54  B.  C.,  eight  and  a  half  legions  (sub- 
sequently reduced  by  losses  to  seven),  with  the  usual  force 
of  auxiliaries ;  in  all,  from  50,000  to  60,000  men.3 

4.  In    campaign   VI.,   53   B.   C.,   ten   legions,   with   the 
usual  force  of   auxiliaries;    in  all,  from  60,000  to   70,000 
men.4 

5.  In  campaign  VII.,  52  B.  C.,  eleven  legions,  with  about 
25,000  or  30,000  auxiliaries;    in   all,  not  far  from   70,000 
men.5 

1  Caesar  found  the  10th  legion  in  Gaul,  brought  the  7th,  8th,  and  9th  from 
their  winter-quarters,  and  enrolled  two  new  legions  — the  llth  and  12th  — in 
Cisalpine  Gaul.    His  auxiliaries  consisted  of  4,000  cavalry  and  a  large  force  of 
light-armed  infantry.     The  number  of  the  latter,  not  definitely  given  in  the 
Commentaries,  has  been  variously  estimated  from  15,000  to  30,000.    The  estimate 
of  Rheinhard  is  15,000,  that  of  General  von  Goler,  30,000. 

2  For  the  second  campaign  Caesar  enrolled  two  new  legions  — the  13th  and 
the  14th.    These  were  added  to  the  six  already  in  his  service. 

3  Napoleon  III.  accounts  for  the  half  legion  by  assuming  that  Caesar  procured 
several  separate  cohorts  to  serve  in  his  fleet  in  his  second  expedition  into  Britain. 
The  five  cohorts  and  almost  the  whole  of  the  14th  legion  were  lost  under  Sabinus 
ar.d  Cotta,  among  the  Eburones.    See  Book  V.,  37. 

4  In  preparation  for  the  sixth  campaign,  Caesar  levied  two  new  legions  —  the 
14th  and  the  15th  —  and  obtained  another  —  the  1st  — from  Pompey.    The  14th 
took  the  place  of  the  14th  that  was  lost. 

6  Caesar  entered  upon  the  seventh  campaign  with  ten  legions;  but  another  — 
the  6th  — was  added  to  the  number  in  the  course  of  the  summer.  These  eleven 
legions  were  the  1st,  6th,  7th,  8th,  9th,  10th,  llth,  12th,  13th,  14th,  and  loth. 
During  this  campaign,  Caesar  probably  had  a  larger  force  of  auxiliaries  than  at  any 
previous  time,  as  he  besought  the  Aedui  to  send  him  all  their  cavalry  and  10,000 
infantry,  and  demanded  cavalry  and  light-armed  infantry  from  subject  states  in 
Germany.  Moreover,  he  speaks  of  22  cohorts  of  auxiliaries,  collected  from  the 
province  by  Lucius  Caesar.  See  Book  VII.,  34  and  65. 


OF   THE   ROMANS.  XXvii 

HISTORY  OF  THE  ROMAN  LEGION. 

5.    The  history  of  the  Roman  legion  naturally  divides 
itself  into  three  periods. 

I.  During  the  first  period,  the  infantry  of  the  legion  in 
battle-array  stood  in  the  form  of  a  solid  phalanx,  probably 
from  six  to  eight  ranks  deep.1    The  division  of  cavalry,  300  in 
number,   belonging  to  the  legion,  was  generally  stationed 
in  front  of  the  phalanx. 

II.  During  the  second  period,  the  infantry  of  the  legion 
was  divided  into  thirty  maniples,2  or  companies,  which,  in 
battle-array,  were   arranged  in   three  lines,  with   intervals 
between  them,3  as  follows  :  — 


Hastati        —    —    —    —    —    —    —    —    —    — 

Principes        —    —    —    —    —    —    —    —    —    — 

Triarii        _-_    —    -____-___' 

1.  The  soldiers  in  the  first  line  were  called  Hastati;  those 
in  the  second,  Principes ;  and  those  in  the  third,  Triarii* 
The  Hastati  were  comparatively  young  men,  who  had  seen 
less  service  than  the  soldiers  in  either  of  the  other  lines ; 
the  Principes  were  in  the  full  strength  of  mature  manhood ; 
while  the  Triarii  were  veterans  in  the  service. 

2.  Each  maniple  in  the  legion  consisted  of  two  divisions, 
or  companies,  called  centuries,5  each  nominally  under  the 

1  The  unbroken  front  of  this  phalanx  was  probably  about  1,500  feet  long.    Its 
original  depth  is  not  known,  but  Marquardt  and  Mommsen  conjecture  that  it 
contained  at  first  six  ranks,  Rustow  and  Kb'chly  that  in  its  later  form  it  con- 
tained eight  ranks.     Livy,  I.  43,  compares  it  to  the  famous  Macedonian  phalanx. 

2  The  change  from  the  phalanx  to  the  legion  of  maniples  is  supposed  to  have 
been  made  in  the  early  part  of  the  fourth  century  before  Christ.    It  is  generally 
ascribed  to  Camillus,  but  see  Frohlich,  Kriegfiihrung   und  Kriegskunst  der 
Romer.—  Berlin  :  1886. 

3  The  interval  was  probably  equal  to  the  length  of  a  maniple.    The  legion  of 
maniples  was,  doubtless,  somewhat  slowly  developed.    The  form  here  given  is 
that  described  by  Polybius.    A  legion,  arranged  in  three  lines,  of  15  maniples 
each,  is  mentioned  by  Livy. 

*  The  origin  of  these  terms  is  doubtful;  but  it  has  been  suggested  that  Prin- 
cipes, in  its  original  application,  probably  designated  the  soldiers  who  were  best 
armed  and  equipped;  that  Hastati  was  a  general  name  for  all  the  heavy-armed 
soldiers,  though  finally  retained  only  by  those  in  the  first  line,  i.  e.,  by  the  inex- 
perienced soldiers;  while  the  others  had  more  specific  and  honorable  titles;  and 
finally,  that  the  Triarii,  derived  from  tres,  were  so  called  from  their  place  in  the 
third  line,  which  was  then  the  post  of  honor. 

6  The  century  (centuria\  originally  a  hundred  men,  probably  contained  at  this 
time  from  60  to  80. 


XXV111  MILITARY    SYSTEM 

command  of  an  officer,  called  centurion  ;  though  the  centu- 
rion of  the  right  century  generally  led  the  whole  maniple.1 
In  active  service,  the  two  centuries  stood  side  by  side. 

3.  The  quota  of  cavalry,  300  in  number,  due  to  each 
legion  was  stationed  on  the  wings.  It  was  divided  into  ten 
companies,  called  turmae,  which  were  each  sub-divided  into 
three  sections,  called  decuriae.  Each  decuria  was  under  the 
command  of  a  decurion. 

III.  During  the  third  period,  including  the  time  of  Caesar, 
the  thirty  maniples  of  the  legion  were  combined  into  ten 
groups,  of  three  maniples  each.2  To  this  new  military 
body,  formed  by  uniting  three  maniples,  the  name  cohort 
was  given.  The  legion  thus  changed  ordinarily  stood, 
when  in  battle-array,  in  three  lines,  with  four  cohorts 
in  the  first  line,  three  in  the  second,  and  three  in  the 
third.8 

PHALANX,  MANIPLES,  AND  COHORTS. 

6.  The  phalanx,  though  it  could  present  a  front  like  a 
wall  to  an  advancing  foe,  was   yet  too   unwieldy  for  the 
exigencies  of  the  battle-field.    To  an  attempt  to  remedy  this 
defect  the  legion  of  maniples  owed  its  origin ;  but  experi- 
ence soon  showed  that  the  division  had  been  carried  too 
far,  and  that  the  maniple  was  too  small  a  body  to  stand 
alone  in  the   line   of   battle.     Accordingly   Marius,    in   re- 
organizing the  army,  proceeded  at  once  to  reunite  every 
three  maniples  into  a  single  company,  called  a  cohort.     The 
value  of  the  change  was   soon   apparent.     The   legion   of 
cohorts,  as  organized  by  Marius,  and  perfected  by  later  gen- 
erals, while  it  avoided  the  special  evils  of  the  phalanx  and 
of  the  legion  of  maniples,  was  found,  in  actual  practice,  to 
unite  in  a  large  measure  the  advantages  of  both. 

7.  The  post  of  honor  in  the  phalanx  was  awarded  to 
wealth  and  station ;    in  the  other  forms  of  the  legion,  to 
military  achievement  and  experience.    In  the  legion  of  mani- 


1  He  was  called  the  first  centurion  (centurio  prior):  in  his  absence,  the  second 
centurion  commanded. 

2  This  change  was  made  by  Marius,  about  one  hundred  years  before  Christ. 

3  For  a  full  account  of  this  order  of  battle,  see  28.    In  the  time  of  Caesar  the 
cavalry  had  ceased  to  form  a  part  of  the  legion. 


OF   THE   ROMANS.  xxiX 

pies,  however,  the  tried  veterans  were  stationed  in  the  third 
line  as  a  reserve,  to  be  summoned  into  action  only  in  cases 
of  special  emergency;  but  in  the  legion  of  cohorts,  they 
occupied  the  forefront,  and  received  the  first  shock  of  bat- 
tle.1 The  Romans  had  at  length  learned  how  much  de- 
pended upon  the  first  onset. 

ARMS  OP  LEGIOXARY  SOLDIERS. 

8.  All  legionary  soldiers  were  armed  with  swords  and 
with   spears   (hastae)2  or  javelins    (pila).      The   defensive 
armor,  both  in  the  phalanx 3  and  in  the  legion  of  maniples, 
consisted  of  a  coat  of  mail,  a  helmet,  greaves,  and  a  shield. 

9.  In  the  time  of  Caesar,  the  essential  articles  in  a  sol- 
dier's equipment  were  as  follows :  — 

1.  A    plain   woollen    tunic    (tunica)^    with    very   short 
sleeves,  which  scarcely  covered  half  of  the  upper  arm.    This 
was  the  main  article  of  dress ;  it  extended  to  the  knee,  and 
was  girded  about  the  loins. 

2.  A  coat  of  mail  (loricci).     This  was  sometimes  a  simple 
coat  of  leather,4  as  represented  on  the  light-armed  soldiers 
in  plate  I. ;  and  sometimes  it  was  covered  with  metal,  as 
seen  in  the  figures  of  the  legionaries  in  the  same  plate. 
Observe  that  flexible  bands  of  steel  or  bronze  encircle  the 
waist ;  that  similar  bands  extend  over  the  shoulders ;  and 
that  the  upper  part  of  the  chest  is  protected  by  metallic 
plates. 

3.  A    thick    woollen   cloak,  or  shawl,  the  sagum,  some- 
times worn  by  soldiers  when  not  in  action.     It  was  thrown 
over   the   shoulders    in    such   a   manner    as   to   leave    the 
arms   comparatively   free.      It   was   generally   secured    by 
a  clasp. 

The   corresponding  garment   for   the    general    and    the 


1  In  the  legion  of  cohorts,  the  post  of  honor  was  the  post  of  danger,  while  in 
the  legion  of  maniples  it  was  a  place  of  comparative  security. 

2  In  the  legion  of  maniples,  the  light-armed  soldiers  (velites),  carried  a  very 
light  spear  (hasta  velitaris). 

3  In  the  phalanx,  only  the  front  ranks  appeared  in  full  armor.    The  othera 
heing  exposed  to  less  danger,  dispensed  with  the  coat  of  mail. 

*  This  seems  to  have  been  made,  originally,  of  strips  of  sole-leather  put  to- 
gether in  the  most  substantial  manner.  Moreover,  a  metallic  breast-plate,  9  or 
10  inches  square,  was  sometimes  worn  under  it. 


XXX  MILITARY    SYSTEM 

higher  officers  was  the  paludamentum,  which  differed  from 
the  sagum  in  the  fact  that  it  was  of  larger  size,  of  finer 
texture,  and  of  more  brilliant  color.  The  paludamentum  of 
the  commande/r-in-chief  was  of  purple.  For  the  manner  in 
which  the  sagum  and  the  paludamentum  were  worn,  see 
plates  I.  and  II. 

4.  Sandals,  or  shoes.     Of  these,  there  were  two  or  three 
varieties.     The  solea  merely  protected  the  sole  of  the  foot ; 
the  calceus  was  an  ordinary  shoe ;  the  caliga  was  a  military 
shoe,  or  boot,  which  covered  the  whole  foot  and  a  part  of 
the  ankle.     See  plates. 

5.  A  helmet,  either  of  bronze  (cassis\  or  of  leather  bound 
with  bronze  (galea).     For  the  general  form  and  style,  see 
plates  I.,  II.,  and  III.     The  helmets  of  the  higher  officers 
were    generally   adorned   with   plumes    of    feathers   or   of 
horse-hair.1 

6.  Greaves  of  bronze  (ocreae).     Usually,  however,  only 
one  was  worn,  as  the  left  leg  was  sufficiently  protected  by 
the  shield.2 

7.  A    large    rectangular   shield,   the    scutum,   four   feet 
long  and  two  and  one-half  wide,  slightly  curved,  as  seen  in 
plate  I.,  on  the  arm  of  one  of   the  legionary  soldiers.     It 
was  made  of  wood;  but  it  was  covered  with  leather,  and 
was  bound  around  the  edges  with  iron.     It  was  furnished 
with  a  metallic  boss  (wribo),  a  knob  or  projection,  which  not 
only  imparted  strength  and  beauty  to  the  shield,  but  often 
caused  missiles  to  glance  off  from  it.3 

Shields  were  ornamented  with  various  devices,  as  winged 
thunderbolts,  eagles,  and  laurel  wreaths.  The  name  of  the 
soldier  and  the  number  of  his  cohort  were  sometimes 
inscribed  on  the  inside.4 


1  Even  soldiers  of  the  rank  and  file  are  occasionally  represented  with  plumes. 

s  Soldiers  sometimes  protected  their  legs,  in  cold  weather,  by  wearing  strips 
of  cloth,  fasciae,  wound  about  them.  In  plate  I.,  they  are  represented  with 
tight-fitting  breeches,  braccae,  reaching  a  little  below  their  knees.  Whether 
these  were  in  use  in  the  time  of  Caesar  is  very  doubtful. 

3  For  a  general  view  of  the  arms  of  the  cavalry  and  of  the  light-armed 
infantry,  see  plate  I. 

4  Upon  the  march,  the  shield  was  protected  from  rain  and  dust  by  a  leathern 
case  drawn  over  it  for  the  purpose.    This  was  removed  before  going  into  battle. 
See  Book  II.,  21. 


OF   THE    ROMANS.  XXXI 

8.  The  so-called  Spanish  sword  (gladius  Hispanus),  the 
only  sword  used  by  the  legions  of  Caesar.  It  had  a  two- 
edged  pointed  blade,  about  two  feet  long  and 
almost  four  inches  wide,  well  adapted  both  for 
thrusting  and  for  striking,  though  ordinarily 
used  for  thrusting.  It  was  generally  worn  on 
the  right  side,  suspended  from  a  belt  (balteus) 
passing  over  the  left  shoulder,  as  seen  in  plate 
I. ;  but  the  higher  officers  wore  it  on  the  left 
side,  suspended  from  a  girdle  (cingulum.)  The 
sheath  and  hilt  wTere  sometimes  richly  orna- 
mented. 

9.  A  heavy  javelin  (pilum).     This  weapon, 
intended  for  hurling,  not  for    thrusting,   was       ¥ 
about  six  feet  and  a  half  long.1     It  consisted 

Sword,       „  ,  ic,  -i        <•  •      i     ,1  •   i      Sword 

gin-      of  a  wooden  shaft,  upwards  of  an  inch  thick      %n 
dlus'     and  about  four  feet  long,  from  which  projected   sheath' 
an  iron,  from  two  to  three  feet  long,  terminating  in  a  steel 
head.     The  pilum  and  the  sword  were  the   weapons  with 
which  the  Roman  legions  conquered  the  world.2 

1  The  pilum  as  described  by  Polybius  was  6  feet  and  9  inches  long,  but,  from 
researches  recently  made,  it  seems  probable  that  the  pilum  in  the  time  of  Caesar 
was  about  6  feet  long.    The  shaft  was  either  round  or  square.    The  momentum 
of  the  weapon,  when  hurled  by  the  strong  hand  of  a  legionary  soldier,  was  very 
great.    It  crushed  through  the  shields  of  the  enemy,  and,  bending  under  the 
weight  of  the  blow,  could  be  drawn  out  only  with  the  greatest  difficulty.    In  no 
event  could  it  be  hurled  back  upon  the  legions.    It  has  been  estimated  that  a 
pilum  hurled  with  ordinary  force  would  cut  through  an  oak  board  half  an  inch 
thick,  lined  with  sheet  iron,  and  that  it  would  undoubtedly  penetrate  both  the 
shield  and  the  coat  of  mail.    For  the  effect  of  the  pilum,  see  Book  I.,  25.    For  a 
full  account  of  this  weapon,  see  Marquardt,  Romische  Staatsverwaltung,  vol.  ii. 
pages  328  to  332;  Jahns,  Geschichte  des  Kriegswesens,  pages  199  to  201;  Guhl  und 
Koner,  Das  Leben  der  Griechen  und  Homer,  page  710  ;  and  Lindenschmit,  Tract 
und  Bewaffnung  des  Komischen  Heeres. 

2  The  corresponding  weapons  of  the  Gauls  were  the  gaesum  and  the  sword. 
The  former  was  a  heavy  javelin  or  spear,  used  mostly  as  a  missile.    See  Book 
III.,  4. 

The  Gallic  swords  were  very  long,  but  without  points  ;  well  adapted  for 
striking  but  not  for  thrusting.  Livy,  XXII.  46,  characterizes  them  as  gladii 
perlongi  ac  sine  mucronibus. 

The  Gallic  helmet,  with  its  large  bushy  plume,  was  intended  to  give  the 
wearer  the  appearance  of  superhuman  size.  Sometimes,  according  to  Diodorus, 
horns  or  frightful  figures  of  beasts  or  birds  projected  above  it. 

The  Gauls  wore  breastplates  or  coats  of  mail,  and  carried  shields,  which  are 
described  as  very  Jarge  (vasta  scuta)  though  not  very  wide  (ad  amplitudinem 
corporum  parum  lata). 

For  the  arms  and  the  general  appearance  of  Gallic  soldiers,  infantry  and 
cavalry,  see  plate  IV. 


XXXli  MILITARY    SYSTEM 

MILITARY  SERVICE.  —  PAY  OF  SOLDIERS. 

10.  Originally  the  Roman  army  was   simply  the   state 
temporarily  in  arms.     Each  citizen  armed    and  supported 
himself  as  he  was  merely  doing  his  own  work.     Campaigns 
in  those  days  were  of  short  duration ;  and  the  citizen,  after 
having  discharged  the  duties  of  the  soldier  for  a  few  weeks, 
returned   to  his  home.      Afterwards,  military  service  was 
regarded  as  a  tax  which  every  citizen  might  occasionally  be 
called  upon  to  pay  to  the  state,  for  the  protection  of  life 
and  property.     But  about  400  B.  C.,  when  Rome  began  to 
be  involved  in  more  protracted  wars,  a  small  allowance  was 
made  from  the  public  treasury  to  furnish  the  army  with 
supplies.     In  the  time  of  Caesar,  however,  service  in  the 
army,  which  had  previously  been  an   occasional  duty  re- 
quired of  all  citizens,  had  become  a  permanent  profession. 
Young  men  of  vigor  and  enterprise  entered  the  army  either 
to  become  professional  soldiers  or  to  qualify  themselves  for 
the  high  offices  of  state,  for  which  only  those  were  eligible 
who  had  served  a  definite  number  of  campaigns.     The  sol- 
diers received  regular  pay,1  fully  equal  to  that  of  laborers  in 
Rome;  while  their  perquisites,  in  the  form  of  booty  and 
presents,  were  by  no  means  unimportant. 

11.  The  soldiers  received  their  pay  once  in  four  months, 
from  which  a  small  deduction2  was  made,  for  supplies  fur- 
nished them  by  the  state.8 

12.  The  recruit  was  required  to  bring  to  the  service  a 
sound  and  vigorous  body ;  but  no  definite  stature  seems  to 
have  been  prescribed.     He  entered  at  once  upon  a  long  and 
severe  course  of  professional  training.      The  success  of  the 
Roman  arms  was  due  largely  to  discipline  and  military  drill. 

1  The  legionary  soldier  probably  received,  per  annum,  about  240  denarii,  a  little 
less  tlian  50  dollars.    The  pay  of  the  centurion  was  twice  as  much  as  that  of  the 
common  soldier. 

2  The  deduction  in  the  time  of  Polybius  was  only  one-thirtieth  part  of  the 
pay,  and  though,  in  consequence  of  the  higher  price  of  grain,  it  was  somewhat 
larger  in  the  time  of  Caesar,  it  was  still  very  inconsiderable.    Thus  the  pay  of  a 
Roman  soldier  was  much  higher,  relatively  to  the  cost  of  living,  than  that  of  a 
soldier  in  a  modern  European  army.    The  auxiliaries  received  army-rations,  but 
their  pay  came  from  their  own  people. 

3  The  regular  allowance  of  wheat,  per  month,  for  each  man  in  the  rank  and 
file  was  a  bushel,  4  modii ;  for  a  centurion,  two  bushels.    Supplies  were  furnished 
twice  a  month,  half  the  monthly  allowance  at  a  time.    For  a  discussion  of  the 
general  subject  of  supplies  for  the  army,  and  the  pay  of  soldiers,  see  Sonklar, 
Abhandlung  Uber  die  Heeresverwaltung  der  alten  Romer. 


OF  THE   ROMANS.  XXXin 

THE  LEGION  IN  THE  TIME  OF  CAESAR. 

13.  In  the  time  of  Caesar,  the  regular  or  normal  strength 
of  a  Roman  legion  when  mustered  into  service  was  prob- 
ably about  5,000  men.1     The  actual  numerical  strength  of 
Caesar's  legions  in  Gaul,  after  years  of  hard  service,  was,  of 
course,   far  below   this   standard.     Indeed,   it   is   doubtful 
whether  the  muster-roll  of  some  of  the  veteran  legions  in 
the    later   Gallic    campaigns    would    much  exceed    2,000. 
Rtistow  estimates  the  average   numerical    strength  of  the 
legions  in  Gaul  at  3,600.2 

14.  The  legion  consisted  of  ten  cohorts.     To  understand, 
therefore,  the  organization  and  action  of  the  legion  as  a 
whole,  we  must  first  get  a  clear  idea  of  the  size,  form,  and 
movements  of  the  cohort,  which   is  the   tactical   unit   on 
which  everything  depends. 

15.  It  seems  safe  to  assume  that  the  standard  numerical 
strength  of  the  cohort  was  about  500 ;  but  that  the  actual 
strength  of  Caesar's  cohorts  in  Gaul  did  not  upon  the  aver- 
age much  exceed  360. 

16.  It  will  be  remembered  that  the  cohort  was  formed  by 
uniting  three  maniples,  and  that  each  maniple  consisted  of 
two  centuries,  each  under  the    command  of   a  centurion. 
"When  the  cohort  was   in  battle-array,  the  men   probably 
stood  in  rank  and  file  as  follows  :  — 

III.  II.  I. 

EHBBBBBBBHHB  E  BHHHHETETOTWHH  E  BHBHBHEHBHBB  H 

E  EI  EI  EI  m  m  a  m  m  m  B  a  EHBBBBEBBBBB  EBBBBBBBBBBEI 

EEBBBBBEBBBB  EBBBBBBBBBaB  EBBBBBBBBBBB 

EEBBBBBBEBBB  EBBBEBBBBBBB  EI  EI  EI  EI  EI  EI  EI  EI  EI  EI  EI  EI 

EBEBBBBBBBEB  BEBBBBEEBBBB  EI  EI  EI  H  EI  EI  EI  EI  EI  EI  EI  EI 
EBEBBEBBBBBBE  EI  EI  EI  EI  EI  EI  EI  EI  EI  EI  EI  EI  B  EI  EI  EI  EI  EI  EI  EI  EI  EI  EI  H  EI  E 

EBBBEIBBEBBBB  EI  EI  EI  EI  EI  EI  EI  EI  EI  El  EI  EI  EBBBBBBBBBBEI 

EBBBBBEBBBBB  EI  El  EI  EI  EI  EI  EI  EI  EI  EI  EI  EI  EI  EI  EI  EI  EI  EI  EI  EI  EI  EI  EI  El 

EEBBBBBBBBBB  El  EI  EI  EI  EI  EI  EI  EI  EI  EI  EI  EI  EEBHBBBBBBBB 

EEBBBBBBBBBB  EI  EI  EI  EI  EI  EI  EI  EI  H  EI  EI  El  EI  H  B  EI  El  EI  H  H  B  EI  EI  EI 

Cohort  in  Line  of  Battle.    Front  120  feet,  depth  40  feet. 


1  This  is  the  estimate  of  Lange  and  of  General  von  Goler.    Mommsen  esti- 
mates a  full  legion  in  the  time  of  Marius  at  6,000.    Napoleon  III.  gives  the  same 
estimate  for  the  legions  engaged  in  the  battle  near  Bibracte.     For  Caesar's 
account  of  this  battle,  see  Book  I.,  24-26. 

2  Kraner's  estimate  is  a  little  lower,  from  3,000  to  3,COO,  and  Mommsen's  con- 
siderably higher,  from  3,500  to  5,000. 


XXXIV  MILITARY   SYSTEM 

17.  Here  I.,  II.,  and   III.  represent   the  three  maniples 
united  to  form  the  cohort.     Number  I.,  on  the  right  wing, 
is  the  veteran  maniple  of  the  cohort,  and  holds  the  post  of 
honor ;  maniple  II.,  in  the  centre,  consists  of  soldiers  who, 
though  in  mature  manhood,  have  not  yet  attained  the  rank 
of  veterans;  while  maniple  III.  contains   those  who  have 
seen  the  least  service   of   all.     Originally,  maniple  I.  was 
designated  by  the  name    Triarii,  or  Pilani;  II.,  by  the 
name  Principes ;  and  III.,  by  the  name  Hastati 1 ;  but  as 
these  names  do  not  occur  in  the  Commentaries  on  the  Gallic 
War,  and  as  they  have  all  lost  their   original  signification,2 
the  simple  numerals,  first,  second,  and  third,  seem  to  be  the 
most  appropriate  designations  of  the  maniples,  especially  as 
they  indicate  their  true  rank  and  order. 

18.  Each  maniple  contained  120    men,  arranged  in  ten 
ranks  of  twelve  men  each.3     The  space  allowed  to  a  soldier 
was  three   feet  wide  and  four  feet    deep.4     The  first  five 
ranks  formed  the  first  century,5  the  last  five   the  second 
century.     The   two   centurions   occupied    positions   at  the 
right  of  the  centuries  which  they  commanded.     For  their 
•use  the  space  of  four  feet  was  left  at  the  right   of  each 
maniple,  as  indicated  in  the  figure  under  16.     The  centurion 
at  the  extreme  right  in  front  was  the  chief  centurion  of  the 
cohort.     He  not  only  led  his  own  century,  but  was  also 
charged  with  the  general  command  of  the  entire  cohort. 

19.  The  length  or  front  of  the  maniple,  occupied  as  it 
was  by  twelve  men  and  one  centurion,  was  40  feet,6  while 
the  depth,  or  file,  occupied  by  ten  men,  was  also  40  feet.6 
Thus  the  maniple  was  40  feet  square,  and  three  such  squares 

1  Thus  it  appears  probable  that  Marias,  in  organizing  the  cohort,  took  one 
maniple  from  each  of  the  three  lines  in  which  the  legion  had  previously  been 
marshalled  for  battle,  naturally  awarding  the  post  of  honor,  on  the  right  wing,  to 
the  veteran  maniple,  the  Triarii,  also  called  Pilani;  the  centre  to  the  Principes, 
and  the  left  wing  to  the  Hastati.    See  6. 

2  These  ancient  names  could  not  fail  to  be  misleading  to  the  learner,  if 
applied  to  the  maniples  in  the  cohort ;  as  Hastati,  for  instance,  means  armed 
with  the  hasta,  while  the  third  maniple,  to  which  it  was  applied,  was  armed  not 
with  the  hasta,  but  with  the  pihim;  again,  Principes  means  holding  the  first 
place  or  rank,  and  yet  the  second  maniple  did  not  hold  either  the  first  place  or 
the  first  rank. 

3  In  other  words,  each  rank  contained  12  men,  and  each  file  10. 

4  That  is,  each  file  occupied  3  feet,  and  each  rank  4  feet. 

6  The  century,  originally  called  centuria,  is  called  ordo  in  the  Commentaries. 
6  That  is  12X3+4  =  40,  and  10X4  =  40. 


OF    THE    ROMANS. 


XXXV 


placed  side  by  side  formed  the  cohort,  which  was  accord- 
ingly 120  feet  long  and  40  deep.1 

20.  The  following  figure  represents  a  cohort  in  various 
positions,2  as  in  line  of  battle  and  on  the  march  :  — 


1.  ABCD  represents  a  cohort  360  strong  in  line  of  battle. 

2.  abed,  the  same  cohort  marching  in  column  of  centuries,  with 
the  first  maniple  in  front. 

3.  abed,  the  same  column  with  the  third  maniple  in  front. 

4.  efgh,  the  cohort  in  column  of  centuries  of  half  the  usual  width 
and  twice  the  usual  length,  with  the  first  maniple  in  front. 

5.  efyh,  the  same  column  with  the  third  maniple  in  front. 

0.     ijkl,  cohort  in  column  of  maniples,  with  the  first  maniple  in  front. 
7.    ijkl,  the  same  column  with  the  third  maniple  in  front. 

1  The  arrangement  here  given,  in  which  the  three  maniples  stand  side  hy 
side  in  the  cohort,  while  the  second  century  stands  directly  behind  the  first  in 
each  maniple,  has  been  quite  generally  accepted,  but  General  von  Goler  places  the 
two  centuries,  two  ranks  deep,  side  by  side  in  the  maniple,  and  stations  the  first 
maniple  at  the  head  of  the  cohort,  the  second  directly  behind  the  first,  and  the 
third  directly  behind  the  second. 

2  A  rectangle  with  a  diagonal  across  it  may  represent  any  company  or  body  of 


XXXvi  MILITARY    SYSTEM 

21.  In  '  abed '  and  '  abcdj  the  column  is  called  a  column  of 
centuries,  because  it  consists  of  the  six  centuries  of  the 
cohort,  placed  one  directly  behind  another.  The  column 
thus  formed  was  40  feet  wide  and  120  feet  long.  The 
column  of  centuries  was  the  usual  order  of  march,  and 
wras  formed  from  the  line  of  battle  in  two  ways,  as 
follows:  — 

1.  The    right    wing,   or    maniple    I.,   marched   straight 
forward ;    maniple    II.   fell    directly    in   the    rear    of     I., 
and  maniple  III.  in  the  rear  of  II.      This  movement  gives 
'abed,'   alreadv  mentioned,  as  a   cohort  marching  in  col- 

•>  o 

umn  of  centuries,  with  the  right  wing,  or  maniple  I.,  in 
front.1 

2.  The  left  wing,  or  maniple  III.,  marched  straight  for- 
ward, maniple  II.  fell    directly  in  the  rear  of   III.,  and 
maniple  I.  in  the  rear  of  II.    This  movement  gives  c  abcdj  a 
cohort  marching  in  column  of  centuries  with  the  left  wing, 
or  maniple  III.,  in  front. 

.  22.  It  will  be  observed  that  the  column  of  centuries  is 
40  feet  wide,  having  exactly  the  width  of  a  maniple.  This 
seems  to  have  been  the  favorite  column  on  the  march 
through  an  open  country,  or  upon  highways  of  sufficient 
width.  Caesar's  famous  bridge  over  the  Rhine  was  40  feet 
wide,  and  thus  exactly  adapted  to  the  width  of  an  army 
marching  in  column  of  centuries.  Many  roads  in  Gaul, 
however,  were  not  more  than  15  or  20  feet  wide.  In  what 
form  could  a  Roman  army  march  over  such  roads  ?  In  the 
regular  column  of  centuries,  the  60  men  belonging  to  a 
century  were  arranged  in  5  ranks  of  12  men  each;  but  the 
century  was  sometimes  arranged  in  10  ranks  of  6  men  each. 
Such  an  arrangement  is  represented  in  cefgh.'  Here  each 
century,  each  maniple,  and  the  entire  cohort  have  only  half 
the  usual  width,  but  twice  the  usual  length.  The  column 
has  only  6  men  abreast,  and  is  only  18  feet  wide,  or,  includ- 
ing the  centurion,  22  feet.  By  adopting  a  close  order,  the 


soldiers,  as  a  century,  maniple,  or  cohort.    In  this  figure  it  represents  a  century. 
The  diagonal  is  drawn  from  the  right  of  the  front  to  the  left  of  the  rear. 

1  That  is,  the  maniple  which  in  battle-array  formed  the  right  wing  of  the 
cohort,  became  the  head  of  the  column. 


OF    THE    ROMANS.  XXXV11 

width  could  be  reduced  in  case  of  need  to  18,  or  even  15 
feet.1 

23.  In  'ijkl'  and  HjkV  the  column  is  called  a  column  of 
maniples,  because  it  consists  of  the  three  maniples  of  the 
cohort  placed  one  directly  behind  another.     Here  the  two 
centuries  of  each  maniple  stand  abreast.    In  cijkl'  the  cohort 
is  said  to  be  marching  by  the  right  flank,  because  in  forming 
this  column  from  the  line  of  battle,  each  man  turns,  or  faces 
to  the  right,  and  thus  the  file  which    formed  the  right  flank 
in  battle-array  becomes  the  front  rank  of    the  column.     In 
'  ijkl?  the  cohort  is  said  to  be  marching    by  the  left  flank, 
because  in  forming  this  column,  each  man   turns  or  faces  to 
the  left.2 

24.  It  will  be  observed  that  the  column    of  maniples 
will  be  considerably  longer  than  the  column  of  centuries,  as 
it  contains  more  ranks.3    In  this  column,  each  maniple,  as  it 
has  12  ranks,  will  be  48  feet  long,  or,  if  we   allow  4  feet  for 
the  centurion,  who  probably  kept  his  place    at  the  head  of 
his  century,  it  will  be  52  feet  long.     This   gives  156  feet  as 
the  length  of  the  cohort  marching  in  a  column  of  maniples. 
As  this  column  was  formed  from  the  line  of   battle  by  sim- 
ply facing  to  the  right  or  left,  the  depth  of  the  cohort,  40 
feet,  naturally   became   the  width  of    the  column,  but   in 
marching,  as  there  were  only  10  men  abreast,  the  width  was 
often  reduced  to  30  feet.     Upon  narrow  roads  the  column 
of  maniples,  like  the  column  of  centuries,  was   sometimes 
reduced  to  one-half  its  usual  width  by  doubling  its  length. 
Such  a  column  had  only  5  men  abreast,  and  could  without 
difficulty  march  over  a  road  15,  or   even  12,  feet  wide.     In 
forming  this  column  from  the  regular  column  of  maniples, 
one  of  the  two  centuries  in  each  maniple  marched  straight 
on  while  the  other  fell  in  its  rear. 

1  The  regular  or  normal  width  of  Koman  roads  was  18  feet.     See  Jahns, 
Geschichte  des  Kriegswesens,  page  304. 

2  When  the  cohort  marches  by  the  right  flank,  the  right  wing,  or  maniple  T., 
becomes  the  head  of  the  column ;  when  it  marches  by  the  left  flank,  the  left 
wing,  or  maniple  III.,  becomes  the  head. 

3  The  learner  should  carefully  distinguish  between  a  column  of  centuries,  as 
seen  in  '  abed'  and  '  abed*  and  a  column  of  maniples,  as  seen  in  '  ijkl '  and '  ijkl.9 
In  the  former,  the  column  is  an  unbroken  series  of  centuries,  arranged  one 
behind  another  ;  while  in  the  latter,  the  two  centuries  of  each  maniple  stand 
abreast. 


XXXviii  MILITARY    SYSTEM! 

25.  The  following  summary  gives  the  length  and  width 
of  the  cohort  in  different  positions :  — 

FROXT.  DEPTH. 

1.  Cohort  in  line  of  battle 120  feet.  40  feet. 

2.  Cohort  in  column  of  centuries       .     .               40    '  120    ' 

3.  Cohort  in  column  of  centuries,  with 

6  files* 18  to  22    «  240    ' 

4.  Cohort  in  column  of  maniples  2      .     .     30  to  40    "  144  to  156    ' 

5.  Cohort  in  column  of  maniples,  with 

5  files 15  to  20    "  288  to  300    " 

26.  As  an  army  on  the  march  was  liable  to  attack,  it 
was  often  necessary  to  form  the  line  of  battle  from  the  line 
of  march.     If  the  enemy  appeared  on  the  flank,  this  was 
most  easily  effected  from  the  column  of  maniples  marching 
in  loose  order,  i.e.,  with  40  feet  front.     The  simple  com- 
mand, "  Halt,  front,"  was  all  that  was  needful.3    If,  however, 
the  enemy  appeared  in  front,  the  line  of  battle  was  most 
readily  formed  from  the  column  of  centuries.4 

LEGION  IN  LINE  OF  BATTLE. 

27.  As  a  legion  is   only  an   aggregate   of  ten   cohorts 
properly  arranged,  we  may  now  apply  to  the  legion  what 
we  have  already  learned  in  regard  to  the  cohort.     A  legion 
in  line  of  battle  consists  simply  of  ten  cohorts,  each  in  its 
proper  position  and  in  battle-array ;  a  legion  on  the  march, 
of  ten  cohorts  marching  in  due  order,  and  with  the  proper 
intervals  between  them. 

28.  But  we  have  already  learned5  that  in  a  legion  in 
battle-array,  the  ten  cohorts  were  arranged  in  three  lines, 


1  The  full  allowance  would  be  22  feet,  18  for  the  6  files,  and  4  for  the  cen- 
turion, reduced  in  case  of  need  to  18  or  less. 

2  In  loose  order,  40  feet ;  but  this  gives  each  man  4  feet ;  if  we  reduce  the 
allowance  to  3  feet,  the  front  of  the  column  becomes  30  feet. 

3  Thus  if  an  enemy  appeared  on  the  right  flank  of  a  column  of  maniples,  as 
represented  by  '  ijkl,'  it  was  only  necessary  for  each  man  to  face  to  the  right  to 
place  the  cohort  in  line  of  battle  ;  but  if  the  enemy  appeared  on  the  left  flank,  it 
was  of  course  necessary  for  the  men  to  face  to  the  left. 

*  Thus  if  the  enemy  appeared  in  front  of  the  column  of  centuries  represented 
by  'abed,'  maniple  I.  halted,  maniple  II.  placed  itself  at  the  left  of  I.,  and 
maniple  III.  at  the  left  of  II. 

«  See  5,  III. 


OF   THE    ROMANS. 


XXX IX 


with  four  cohorts  in  the  first  or  front  line,  three  in  the 
second,  and  three  in  the  third,  as  follows l :  — 


Legion  in  Line  of  Battle. 

29.  Observe  that  the  cohorts  are  arranged  with  intervals 
between  them,  that  the  cohorts  in  the  second  line  are 
directly  behind  the  intervals  in  the  first,  and  that  the 
cohorts  in  the  third  line  are  directly  behind  the  intervals  in 
the  second.2  The  cohorts  are  numbered  from  1  to  10, 
according  to  the  rank  and  military  experience  of  the  centu- 
rions and  soldiers.8  A  position  in  the  front  line  is  more 
honorable  than  in  either  of  the  others,  while  in  either  line  a 
position  on  the  right  wing  is  more  honorable  than  on  the 
left.  The  first  cohort,  holding  the  post  of  honor,  is  on  the 

1  This  order  of  battle  is  generally  supposed  to  be  the  acies  triplex,  so  often 
mentioned  by  Caesar,  but  General  von  Goler  claims  that  the  acies  triplex  refers, 
not  to  the  three  lines  of  cohorts,  but  to  the  three  great  divisions  of  an  army,  viz., 
the  main  body  or  the  central  division,  and  the  two  wings. 

2  As  the  third  line  was  held  as  a  reserve,  and  was  not  often  called  into  action, 
the  exact  position  of  the  cohorts  seems  not  to  have  been  as  definitely  determined 
as  in  the  other  lines.    The  order  here  given  has  been  adopted  from  llustow. 
Goler  arranges  the  cohorts  as  follows  :  — 

4321 


10 


3  Thus  promotions  both  of  centurions  and  of  men  were  from  the  tenth  cohort 
to  the  ninth,  from  the  ninth  to  the  eighth,  from  the  eighth  to  the  seventh,  and  so 
on  through  all  the  cohorts  to  the  first. 


Xl  MILITARY    SYSTEM 

extreme  right  of  the  front  line,  while  the  tenth,  holding 
the  lowest  °rank  in  the  legion,  is  on  the  extreme  left  of  the 
third  line. 

30.  The  interval  between  the  cohorts  in  each  line  was 
120  feet,  the  length  of  a  cohort,  but  the  interval  between 
the  lines  was  probably  240  or  250  feet.     Thus  the  front  or 
length  of  a  legion  in  battle-array  was  840  feet,1  while  its 
depth  from  the  front  of  the  first  line  of  cohorts  to  the  rear 
of  the  third  line  was  from  600  to  620  feet.1 

31.  When   an   army   consisting   of   several   legions   was 
marshalled  in  order  of  battle,  each  legion  was  arranged  in 
three  lines,  as  already  described,  and  the  several  legions 
were  separated   by  intervals,   probably   varying  in   length 
with  the  nature  of  the  ground,  but  seldom  less  than  120 
feet,  the  length  of  a  cohort.     If  we  assume  that  this  inter- 
val was  120  feet,  we  shall  find  that  the  front  of  Caesar's 
line  of  battle  on  the  Axona,  with  six  legions,  was  5,640 2  feet 
and  its  depth,  600  feet.      Thus  the  line  of  battle  of  an 
army  of  six  legions,  numbering  in  all  about  25,000  men, 
was  considerably  more  than  a  mile   long  and   almost   an 
eighth  of  a  mile  deep,  and  occupied  upwards  of  75  acres 
of  ground. 

OFFICERS  IN  A  ROMAN  ARMY. 

32.  In  a  Roman  army  engaged  in  an  important  work 
like  the  conquest  of  Gaul,  the  regular   officers  were   the 
commander-in-chief,   the   lieutenant-generals,    the   quaestor, 
the   military  tribunes,   the   centurions,    the   praefects,  and 
the  decurions. 

33.  The  commander-in-chief,  called  dux   'belli  or  imper- 
ator,  had  m  his  own  province   almost  unlimited  military 
power.     He  was  clothed  with  the  full  measure  of  authority 
which  belongs  to  a  commander-in-chief  in  modern  warfare. 

34.  The   lieutenant-generals,   legati,   were   the  highest 
officers  in  the  army  under  the   commander-in-chief.     They 

1  The  front,  or  length,  of  the  legion  was  made  np  of  the  length  of  four  co- 
horts and  of  three  intervals,  each  120  feet.  It  was  therefore  7  X  12°  =  840  feet.  The 
depth  was  made  up  of  the  depth  of  the  three  lines  of  cohorts,  each  40  feet,  and 
two  intervals,  each  240  or  250  feet,  i.e.,  it  was  120  +  480  or  500  =  600  or  6:10  feet. 

*  That  is  6  X  &40  +  5  X  120  =  5,040  +  600  ==  5,640  feet. 


OF   THE    ROMANS.  xli 

were  all  of  senatorial  rank  and  received  their  appointment 
from  the  senate.  In  the  absence  of  the  commander-in- 
chief,  they  assumed  his  duties.  They  were  sometimes  placed 
in  command  of  important  detachments  detailed  for  special 
service.  In  the  battle  with  Ariovistus,  Caesar  placed  one  of 
his  legions  under  the  command  of  his  quaestor  and  each 
of  the  other  five  under  the  command  of  one  of  his  lieu- 
tenants. 

35.  The  quaestor  had  charge  of  the  military  chest,  and 
was  the  quartermaster  of  the  army.     He  had  the  rank  of  a 
lieutenant-general,   legatus,   and   was   sometimes   entrusted 
with  a  command  in  battle. 

36.  The  special  officers  of  the  separate  legions  were  the 
military  tribunes  and  the  centurions. 

37.  Each  legion  had  six  military  tribunes,  tribuni  mill- 
turn,  who  formerly  commanded  in  rotation,  two  at  a  time 
for  a  period  of  two  months.1    In  the  army  in  Gaul,  how- 
ever, the  tribunes  were  mostly  young  men  of  wealth  and 
social  position  whom  Caesar,  from  personal  friendship  or 
political  considerations,  had  selected  from  the   equestrian 
order  and  placed  upon  his  staff.     They  had  little  military 
experience  or  knowledge,  and  were  accordingly  incompetent 
to  take  the  general  command  of  a  legion  in  battle,2  though 
they  were  sometimes  entrusted  with  the  command  of  small 
detachments  detailed  for  special  service.     In  general,  they 
administered  the  internal  affairs  of  the  legion.     They  served 
as  staff-officers  to  the  commander-in-chief  and  as  adjutants 
to  the  lieutenant-generals  and  the  quaestor. 

38.  Each  legion  had  also  60  centurions.3    These  officers 
were  in  general  men  of  large  military  experience,  who  had 
been  promoted  from  the  ranks,  as  a  reward  of  good  service. 
They  were  the  real  commanders,  not  only  of  centuries,  but 
also  of  maniples  and  cohorts,  and,  in  a  certain  sense,  under 
the  legatus,  of  the  legion  as  a  whole.     The  two  centurions 
in  each  maniple  differed  from  each  other  in  rank ;  the  first, 

1  The  two  tribunes  commanded  by  turns,  each  for  one  day.    See  Marquardt, 
Romische  Staatsverwaltung,  Vol.  II.,  p.  352 ;  also  Jalms,  Geschichte  des  Kriegs- 
wesens,  p.  225. 

2  See  Book  I.,  39. 

3  According  to  Goler,  there  were  120  centurions  in  each  legion,  but  he  includes 
iu  this  number  the  60  assistant  centurions,  called  optiones. 


Xiii  MILITARY    SYSTEM 

called  centurio  prior,  commanded  the  maniple,  while  the 
second,  called  centurio  posterior,  served  as  his  adjutant. 
The  first  centurion  of  the  first  maniple  commanded  the  co- 
hort, and  the  first  centurion  of  the  first  maniple  of  the  first 
cohort,  called  primi  pili  centurio,  or  primipilus,1  was  the 
chief  centurion  of  the  legion,  and  had  much  to  do  with  the 
general  command. 

39.  The  Romans  in  their  military  system  seem  to  have 
aimed  to  stimulate  ambition  and  reward  fidelity.     An  enter- 
prising recruit  who  on  entering  the  service  took  his  place  at 
the  very  foot  of  the  legion,  in  the  second  century  of  the 
third  maniple  of  the  tenth  cohort,  had  before  him  a  long 
career  of  advancement  in  the  rank  and  file  of  the  army,  and 
if,  by  bravery  and  fidelity,  he  succeeded  in  attaining  the 
coveted  office  of  centurion,  the  prospect  of  promotion  was 
still  before  him.     He  might  hope  to  rise  from  maniple  to 
maniple,  and  from  cohort  to  cohort,  until,  in  the  end,  having 
passed  through  all  the  grades  of  honor,  he  should  become 
the  chief  centurion,  the  primipilus   of   the  legion.      This 
was  the  height  of  his  ambition,  the  goal  of  his  aspirations. 

40.  The  exact  order  of   promotion   is   still  a   disputed 
question.     According  to  Riistow,  the  six  centurions  of  each 
cohort  formed  a  separate  class,  the  centurions  of  the  first 
cohort  forming  the  first  class,  those  of  the  tenth  cohort 
the  tenth  class.     Thus  there  were  ten  classes,  and  each  class 
contained  six  centurions.2     This  is  probably  the  prevailing 
view  among  scholars.3 

1  See  Book  II.,  25,  and  Book  III.,  5. 

2  To  determine  the  rank  of  a  centurion,  we  must  know  to  which  cohort  he 
belonged,  to  which  maniple  in  the  cohort,  and  to  which  century  in  the  maniple. 
Thus  the  full  designation  of  his  rank  required  the  use  of  three  separate  titles  : 
(1),  an  ordinal  numeral,  as  primus,  if  he  belonged  to  the  first  cohort,  secundus,  if 
he  belonged  to  the  second  ;  (2),  the  word  pilus,  if  he  belonged  to  the  first  maniple 
in  his  cohort,  princeps,  if  he  belonged  to  the  second,  and  hastatus,  if  he  belonged 
to  the  third  ;  and  (3)  prior,  if  he  belonged  to  the  first  century  in  his  maniple,  and 
posterior,  if  he  belonged  to  the  second.    Thus  primus  pilus  prior,  applied  to  a 
centurion,  denotes  that  he  commanded  the  first  century  of  the  first  maniple  of 
the  first  cohort,  —  in  other  words,  that  he  was  the  chief  centurion  of  the  legion  ; 
decimus  hastatus  posterior  denotes  that  he  commanded  the  second  century  of  the 
third  maniple  of  the  tenth  cohort,  i.e.,  that  he  was  the  lowest  centurion  in  the 
legion,  while  quintus  princeps  prior  denotes  that  he  commanded  the  first  century 
of  the  second  maniple  of  the  fifth  cohort. 

s  According  to  Goler,  however,  the  first  centurion  of  each  cohort  belonged  to 
the  first  class,  the  second  to  the  second  class,  the  third  to  the  third  class,  and  so 


OF   THE    ROMANS.  xliii 

41.  The  centurions  of  the  first  class,  called  sometimes 
primorum    ordinum    centuriones^    and    sometimes    simply 
primi  ordines?  enjoyed  certain  honors  and  privileges  not 
often  accorded  to  the  other  centurions.     As  a  general  rule, 
they  alone  of  the  centurions  were  invited  by  the  commander 
to  seats  in  all  councils  of  war 2  in  company  with  the  lieu- 
tenants and  the  military  tribunes. 

42.  The   praefects,  praefecti^   commanded   divisions    of 
auxiliaries,  either  infantry  or  cavalry.     The  praefects  in  the 
army  of  Caesar  in  Gaul  were  mostly  young  men  who  had 
seen  little  military  service.3  . 

43.  The  decurions  commanded  small  companies  of  cav- 
alry.    Each  company,  or  troop,  called  turma,  numbering 
thirty  horse,  was  divided  into  three  sections,  called  decuriae^ 
each  under  the  command  of  a  decurion;  but  the  first,  or 
senior,  decurion  commanded  not  only  his  own  decuria,  but 
also  the  entire  turma. 

ORDER  OF  MARCH. 

44.  The  usual  order  of  march  was  either  the   simple 
column,  agmen  pilatum,OY  the  line  of  battle,  acies  instructa. 
The  square,  agmen  quadratum,  was  resorted   to  only  in 
extreme  cases. 

LEGIONS  MARCHING  IN  COLUMN  —  Agmen  Pilatum. 

45.  A  cohort  in  column  of  centuries,  as  we  have  already 
seen  (25),  has  a  front  of  40  feet,  with  a  depth  of  120  feet. 
If  the  column  was  formed  from  the  right,  the  first  cohort 
led,  and  was  followed  by  the  others  in  the  order  of  their 
numbers,  but  if  the  column  was  formed  from  the  left,  the 
tenth  cohort  led  and  was  followed  by  the  others  in  the 
inverse  order  of  their  numbers,  i.e.,  the  ninth,  eighth,  etc. 

on  until  all  the  centurions  were  classified.  Thus  each  class  consisted  of  ten  cen- 
turions, one  from  each  cohort,  and  there  were  as  many  classes  as  there  were 
centurions  in  a  cohort,  i.  e.,  there  were  six  classes  of  the  regular  centurions, 
While,  therefore,  Riistow  divides  the  60  regular  centurions  of  a  legion  into  ten 
classes,  of  six  centurions  each,  Goler  divides  them  into  six  classes,  of  ten  each. 
In  the  same  manner,  Goler  divides  the  60  assistants  or  sub-centurions,  optiones, 
into  six  classes,  of  ten  each,  making  in  all  twelve  classes. 

i  See  Book  V.,  28  and  30 ;  Book  VI.,  7. 

a  See  Book  I.,  41,  and  Book  V.,  28. 

»  See  Book  I.,  39. 


xliv  MILITARY    SYSTEM 

46.  On  the  march,  the  cohorts  are  supposed   to   have 
been  separated  from  each  other  by  an  interval  of  20  or  30 
feet.    Assuming  an  interval  of  20  feet,  we  find  that  a  legion, 
marching  in  column  of  centuries,  with  a  front  of  40  feet, 
was  1,400  feet  long,  and  with  a  front  of  20  feet,  2,600  feet 
long.1 

47.  In  general,   every  Roman   soldier  carried  his  own 
personal    baggage.      The   different    articles,   consisting   of 
clothing,  cooking  utensils,  and  rations  for  one,  two,  or  more 
weeks,  weighing,  probably,  in  the  aggregate,  from  30  to  50 
pounds,  were  carefully  put  up  in  packages,  sarcinae,  and 
firmly  secured  to  a  rod,  as  represented  in  plate  I.     On  the 
inarch,  the  rod  was  carried  on  the  shoulder.2 

48.  The  general  baggage  of  the  army,  called  impedimenta, 
comprising  tents,  tools,  and  supplies  of  various  kinds,  was 
carried  by  beasts  of  burden,  jumenta.     According  to  Rus- 
tow's  estimate,3  the  length  of  the  baggage-train  of  a  legion 
marching  in  a  column  of  centuries  of  full  width,  was  650 
feet,  and  that  of  a  legion  marching  in  a  column  of  centuries 
of  half  the  usual  -vidth,  1,300  feet. 

49.  We  have  just  seen  (46)  that  a  legion  without  bag- 
gage-train, in  a  column  of  centuries  of  full  width,  was  1,400 
feet  long,  and  in  a  column  of  half  the  usual  width,  2,600  feet 
long.      Including  the   baggage-train,  therefore,  the   entire 
length  of  the  column  of  full  width  must  have  been  about 
2,050  feet,  or  two-fifths  of  a  mile,  and  the  entire  length  of 
the  column  of  half  the  usual  width,  about  3,900  feet,  or 
almost  four-fifths  of  a  mile.4 

50.  Before  the   battle  of   the  Sabis,  Caesar   had   eight 
legions  on  the  march.5    The  length  of  a  column  of  centu- 
ries, containing  such  a  force,  would  be  16,400  feet,  upwards 

1  The  length  of  a  column  of  full  width  was  10  X  120  feet-f  10X20  feet  =  1,400 
feet,  and  the  length  of  a  column  of  half  the  usual  width  was  10  X  2io  *eet 
+  10X20  feet  =  2600  feet.     This  estimate  includes  the   interval   of   20  feet 
between  the  last  cohort  of  the  legion  and  the  first  cohort  of  the  next. 

2  This  arrangement  for  the  convenience  of  the  soldier,  introduced  by  Marius, 
was  called  from  him  mulus  Marianus,  the  "mule  of  Marius."    It  was  simply  a 
primitive  knapsack. 

3  This  estimate  allows  to  each  legion  520  beasts  of  burden,  arranged  in 
Co  full  ranks,  with  8  animals  in  a  rank,  and  gives  10  feet  to  each  rank. 

*  The  column  of  maniples  of  any  given  force  would  be  about  one-fifth  longer 
than  the  column  of  centuries. 

6  See  Book  II.,  19  to  27. 


OF   THE    ROMANS. 


xlv 


of  three  miles,  if  the  column  was  of  full  width  ;  and  31,200 
feet,  upwards  of  six  miles,  if  the  column  was  of  half  the 
usual  Avidth. 

MARCHING  IN  LINE  OF  BATTLE  —  Acies  Instructa. 

51.  A  legion  marching  in  line  of  battle  was  usually 
arranged  in  three  parallel  lines  of  cohorts  ;  but  these  lines 
might  be  formed  in  two  different  ways,  as  follows:  — 

1.  The  three  lines  of  cohorts  which  constituted  the  usual 
order  of  battle,  the  triplex  acies,  formed  the  three  parallel 
columns.  Thus  cohorts  1,  2,  3,  and  4  formed  the  first 
column,  5,  6,  and  7  the  second,  and  8,  9,  and  10  the  third, 
as  seen  in  figure  2,  below. 


Fiy.3. 


Ef 


0 


IZf 


Fit/  I. 


Fig.  2. 


tar 


Figure  1  represents  a  legion  in  order  of  battle. 

Figure  2,  a  legion  marching  in  order  of  battle,  with  its  cohorts  in 
column  of  maniples. 

Figure  3,  a  legion  marching  in  order  of  battle,  with  its  cohorts  in 
column  of  centuries. 


xlvi 


MILITARY    SYSTEM 


In  forming  these  columns,  each  man  faced  to  the  right  or 
left,  and  marched  by  the  right  or  left  flank.  Each  cohort 
marched  in  column  of  maniples.  In  an  army  of  several 
legions,  marching  in  this  order,  the  second  legion  wras 
placed  directly  in  the  rear  of  the  first,  the  third  directly  in 
the  rear  of  the  second,  and  so  on  to  the  end  of  the  column. 
Thus  the  whole  army  marched  in  three  parallel  columns  of 
maniples.  If  the  enemy  appeared  on  either  flank,  the  col- 
umns halted,  each  man  faced  to  the  right  or  left,  as  the  case 
required,  the  cohorts  separated,  and  the  whole  army  was  in 
battle-array.  This  order  of  march  was  usually  adopted 
when  the  enemy  was  expected  on  the  flank. 

2.  When  the  enemy  was  expected  in  front,  the  legion 
marched  straight  forward  with  its  cohorts  in  column  of 
centuries :  the  three  cohorts  on  the  right  wing  of  the  le- 
gion, viz.,  1,  5,  and  8,  fell  into  line  and  formed  the  right 
column,  the  central  cohorts,  2,  6,  and  9,  formed  the  middle 
column,  and  the  left  cohorts,  3,  4,  7,  and  10,  the  left  column, 
as  seen  in  figure  3,  above.  In  an  army  of  several  legions, 
marching  in  this  order,  the  legions  were  all  placed  abreast, 
and  there  were  three  times  as  many  columns  as  there  were 
legions.  Thus  an  army  of  6  legions  marched  in  18  parallel 
columns.  To  form  the  line  of  battle  from  these  columns,  it 
was  only  necessary  for  each  cohort  to  arrange  its  own  mani- 
ples in  order  of  battle,  as  already  described  (26,  foot-note), 
and  then  take  its  proper  station  in  the  line. 

52.  The  square,  the  agmen  quadratum,  was  adopted  on 
the  march  only  in  the  presence  of  an  over- 
whelming force  of  the  enemy.  In  regard 
to  its  exact  formation,  there  is  some 
diversity  of  opinion.  According  to  Rtis- 
tow,  the  ten  cohorts  of  each  legion 
formed  a  rectangle  enclosing  the  bag- 
gage, as  seen  in  the  accompanying  figure. 

Cohorts  1,  2,  and  3,  in  column  of  centuries, 
formed  the  vanguard;  cohorts  8,  9,  and  10, 
also  in  column  of  centuries,  formed  the  rear- 
guard; while  5  and  6,  in  columns  of  maniples 

of  5  files,  formed  the  right  wing,  and  4  and  7,  also  in  column  of 

maniples  with  5  files,  formed  the  left  wing. 


Agmen  Quadratum. 


OF  THE   ROMANS,  xlvii 

53.  In  an  army  on  the  march,  we  recognize  three  parts, 
more  or  less  distinct :  — 

1.  The  vanguard,  the  head  of  the  column,  primum  ag- 
men.1 

2.  The  main  body  of  the  army,  exercitus,  omnes  copiae.1 

3.  The  rear-guard,  the  rear,  novissimum  agmen.1 

54.  The  special  organization  of  the  different  parts  of  the 
column,  and  indeed  the  entire  order  of  march,  depended 
largely  upon  the  direction  of  the  movement  in  relation  to 
the  enemy. 

OEDEE  OF  MAECH  IN  ADVANCING. 

55.  In  advance  movements  in  the  Gallic  campaigns,  the 
vanguard  of  Caesar's  army  ordinarily  consisted  of  cavalry 
and  light-armed  infantry,  together  with  the  tribunes,  centu- 
rions, and  legionaries  entrusted  with  the  duty  of  selecting 
and  measuring  off  the  ground  for  the  camp.     It  was  its 
special  duty  to  reconnoitre  the  country,  to  take  note  of  all 
hostile  preparations,  to  gain  tidings  of  the  enemy,2  and  in 
due  time  to  select  a  suitable  place  for  the  camp. 

56.  The  main  body  of  the  army  followed  the  van  at  a 
convenient  distance.     It  marched  in  column  of  centuries, 
each  legion  with  its  baggage  directly  behind  it ;  but  the  last 
legion  probably  detailed  a  few  cohorts  to  protect  its  bag- 
gage, and  in  that  event  the  cohorts  thus  detailed  formed 
the  rear-guard  of  the  army.     In  this  order  of  march,  the 
legions,  thus  separated  by  their  baggage,  were  exposed  in 
case  of  an  attack  to  great  peril ;  they  were  accordingly  said 
to  be  impeditae?  entangled  or  impeded  by  baggage,  impedi- 
mentum. 

57.  In    advancing  in   the   presence   of  the   enemy  the 
legions  marched  either  in  column  of  centuries,  with  collected 

-  baggage,  or  in  order  of  battle.  With  the  first  arrangement, 
the  main  body,  consisting  of  three-fourths  of  all  the  legions, 
followed  close  upon  the  advance-guard,  and  was  itself  imme- 

1  For  the  use  of  these  terms,  see  Book  I.,  15  and  23  ;  Book  II.,  19  and  26. 

2  From  the  van,  detachments  of  cavalry  were  sent  out  in  various  directions, 
sometimes  to  great  distances.    It  was  by  means  of  such  reconnoitring  parties 
that  Caesar  obtained  tidings  of  the  movements  of  Ariovistus,  while  he  was  yet 
twenty-four  miles  distant.    See  Book  I.,  41. 

8  See  Book  III.,  24. 
C 


xlviii  MILITARY    SYSTEM 

diately  followed  by  the  collected  baggage-train  of  the  army. 
The  few  remaining  legions  formed  the  rear-guard  of  the 
column.  In  this  order  of  march,  the  legions  were  compara- 
tively ready  for  action,  and  were  said  to  be  expeditae,  disen- 
tangled, or  free  from  encumbrance ; l  but  the  individual 
soldiers  were  still  impediti,  and  in  case  of  an  attack,  they 
required  time  to  dispose  of  their  personal  baggage,2  to 
remove  the  coverings  from  their  shields,  to  put  on  their 
helmets,  to  adjust  their  field-badges,3  and,  in  a  word,  to 
prepare  for  action.4  In  such  an  emergency,  it  was  the 
special  duty  of  the  advance-guard  to  secure  for  them  the 
needful  time  by  engaging  the  enemy,  and  thus  retarding 
his  movements. 

58.  Sometimes  in  advancing  in  the  immediate  presence 
of  the  enemy,  if  the  ground  permitted,  the  several  legions 
marched  abreast,  each  in  three  parallel  columns  in  order  of 
battle.5    For  the  special  formation  and  arrangement  of  the 
columns,   see   51.     In  this  order  of  march,  every  soldier, 
free-  from  his  baggage,   and    fully   armed    and   equipped, 
was  expedituS)  ready  for  immediate  action. 

ORDER  OF  MARCH  IN  RETREAT. 

59.  The  order  of  march  in  retreat  was  usually  the  simple 
column   of   centuries  with  collected  baggage.      The   van- 
guard, consisting  of  a  legion  or  more,  started  in  advance, 
with  the  entire  baggage-train  of  the  army ;  at  a  suitable  dis- 
tance behind  marched  the  other  legions,  followed   by  the 
rear-guard,  consisting  of  cavalry,  archers,  and  slingers. 

60.  In   cases  of  extreme  peril,  the  agmen  quadratum, 
already  explained  (52),  was  adopted  in  retreat.    In  such  an 
emergency,  all  the  legions   of  the   army  were   sometimes 
massed  around  their  baggage  in  a  single  square  or  rectangle, 
and   sometimes  each  legion  enclosed  its  own  baggage,  as 
explained  in  52.     The  cavalry,  archers,  and  slingers,  remain- 
ing outside  of  the  squares,  served  as  skirmishers. 


ad 


See  Book  II.,  19  ;  Book  V.,  2  ;  Book  VII.,  40. 
See  Book  I.,  24,  sarcinas  in  unum  locum  conferri. 

See  Book  II.,  21,  ad  galeas  induendas  scutisque  tegimenta  detrudenda;  also 
insignia  accommodanda. 

See  Book  VII.,  18,  sarcinas  conferri,  arma  expediri,jussit. 
See  Book  IV.,  14. 


OF   THE    ROMANS.  xlix 

ORDER  OF  MARCH  IN  FLANK~~MOVEME:NTS. 

61.  Flank  inarches1  were  always  made  in  order  of  battle. 
The  legions  generally  marched  in  three  columns  of  maniples. 
For- the  formation  of  these  columns,  see  51,  1.     In  an  open 
country,  the  cavalry,  archers,  and  slingers,  marched  on  the 
flank  toward  the  enemy,  while  the  baggage-train  was  sta- 
tioned on  the  other  flank.     In  special  cases,  each  legion  was 
followed  by  its  own  baggage. 

62.  The  day's  march  of  a  Roman  army  in  the  field  began 
at  four  or  five  o'clock  in  the  morning  and  continued  till 
about  mid-day.     Most  of  the  afternoon  was   occupied  in 
fortifying  the  camp  and  in  attending  to  various  duties  con- 
nected with  camp-life.     The  distance  usually  accomplished 
in  a  day  does  not  seem  to  have  differed  much  from  an  ordi- 
nary day's  march  of  modern  armies.     The  average  distance 
was  probably  about  fifteen  or  sixteen  miles.    Forced  marches 
(magna  itinerd)  were,  of  course,  much  longer.     In  one  in- 
stance,2 Caesar  marched  about  fifty  miles  in  a  little  more 
than  twenty-four  hours ;  but  this  was  an  exceptional  achieve- 
ment, accomplished  under  the  pressure  of  a  military  necessity. 

ROMAN  CAMP. 

63.  In  the  military  history  of  Rome  the  camp   has  a 
degree  of  importance  without  a  parallel  in  modern  warfare. 
It  was  the  soldier's  home,  a  place  of  rest  and  security  after 
the  labors  and  dangers  of  the  day;  in  it  was  the  altar  at 
which  he  worshipped.     It  was  always  fortified,  even  when    J 
intended  for  a  single  night.     Indeed,  it  was  like  a  fortified 
city,  encompassed  and  protected  by  ramparts  and  a  moat. 
A  Roman  general  seldom  went  into  battle  without  a  forti-^ 
fied  camp  directly  in  the  rear.     In   modern  warfare,  those 
who  are  defeated  in  battle  are  exposed  to  all  the  perils  of  a 
disorderly  retreat ;  a  Roman  army,  on  the  contrary,  after  a 
defeat,  retired  in  comparative  safety  to  a  well  fortified  camp. 

64.  In  the  Roman  camp,  each  legion,  cohort,  and  mani- 
ple, had  a  definite  space  assigned  to  it ;  and  this  space  was 
bounded  on  all  sides  by  a  street  of  greater  or  less  width. 

1  An  army  is  said  to  make  a  flank  movement  when  it  passes  near  the  flank  of 
the  enemy  or  marches  in  a  direction  parallel  to  his  line  of  march. 
*  See  Book  VII.,  40  and  41. 


1  MILITARY    SYSTEM 

Each  maniple  occupied  a  rectangle  108  feet  long  and  48  feet 
wide,  surrounded  by  a  street,  12  feet  wide.     Accordingly, 
the  entire  space  assigned  to  a  maniple,  including  half  the 

width  of  the  streets  which  sep- 
*a  .......       —  <fr  .............  -f.       arated    it    from    the    adjacent 

1  D  QQQ'DQ'Q  Q  \      maniples,  was  120  feet  long  and 
^  ':      108™™*'     48          |i:      *0  feet  wide,  as  seen  in  the  ac- 

companying  %ure' 


ABCD,  the  entire  space  assigned  to 
a  maniple,  including  half  the  street. 

abed,  the  smaller  rectangle,  108  feet  long  and  48  wide,  actually 
occupied  by  the  maniple.  Along  the  side  '  ab,J  in  this  last  rectangle, 
were  placed  eight  tents  for  the  first  century;  and  along  the  side  *dc' 
eight  tents  for  the  second  century.  The  tents  were  10  feet  square,  and 
were  separated  from  each  other  by  intervals  of  4  feet.1  They  were 
all  placed  with  the  front  to  the  street  ;  accordingly,  the  two  rows  faced 
in  opposite  directions.  The  beasts  of  burden  were  placed  in  the  rear 
of  the  tents. 

65.  As  a  cohort  contained  three  maniples,  it  would  re- 

20  quire    for    its    accommoda- 

ja  ........................  .........  b  •  ti°n   three    such    rectangles 

:  QQ'Q'QQO  QD  I  as  we  have   now  described. 

Manipu  I  .              I  j  Acc.ordingbr>   the   space  oc- 

:  :  cupied  by  a  cohort  in  camp 

iJU.  Qn.Qn.Q.Q.D  i  was  180  feet  long  and  120 

•a:  wide,  as  seen  in  the  accom- 

j  P'UUUOnUq  j  panying  figure. 

I.'    I  Maniple  11 

o  ;  !  ABCD,  the  space  occupied  by 

~:r~ir~]r~inr~!rir~iri  '       one  collort»   including  one  half 
"!<J;  Ji-J-L-J  —  l±-k\       the  widt]l  of  the  gtreets  which 

:aj  —  i-  1  —  1-|  —  r-i  —  r-j  —  1-|  —  r-(  —  ,--|  —  ib:       separate  it  from  the  other  co- 
iLJLJLJUULJULJ:       horts. 

Maniple     III  abcd»    the    SPaCe    OCCUPied    bY 

each   maniple  for  tents,  arms, 

•  nnnnnnnrl  :    and  beasts  °f  burden. 

id^';__;:~;_;_;_;:rci  In    the    arrangement   of    the 

0  ~"c        three  maniples    of   the    cohort, 
Cohort  in  Camp.  the  &***  was  P^ced  nearest  to 

the  wall  of  the  camp. 

1  The  tents  were  covered  with  the  skins  of  animals  or  with  leather  ;  hence  the 
expression  subpellibus,  in  tents,  in  camp.    See  Book  III.,  29. 


OF   THE    ROMANS. 


li 


66.  Ten  rectangles,  180  feet  long  and  120  feet  wide, 
would  furnish  quarters  for  a  legion ;  fifty  such  rectangles 
for  five  legions ;  but  a  camp  for  a  Roman  army  must  pro- 
vide quarters  not  only  for  the  legions,  but  also  for  the  aux- 
iliaries. The  following  plan,  taken,  with  slight  modifica- 
tions, from  Rtistow,  shows  the  general  arrangement  of  a 
Roman  camp  for  an  army  consisting  of  five  legions,  with  the 
usual  force  of  auxiliaries  :  — 

Praetoria. 


Decumana. 
Plan  of  a  Roman  Camp.     Length,  2,100  feet.     Width,  1,400  feett 

1  The  Roman  camp  was  either  a  square,  or  a  rectangle  whose  width  was  two- 
thirds  of  its  length.  The  plan  represents  the  latter  form.  The  ancient  authori- 
ties on  the  camp  are  Polybius,  who  lived  in  the  second  century,  B.C.,  and  a 
certain  Hyginus,  who,  in  the  opinion  of  Marquardt,  lived  about  the  beginning  of 
the  third  century,  A.D. 

The  size  of  the  camp  must,  of  course,  be  adapted  to  the  size  of  the  army  to 
be  quartered  in  it.  Riistow  gives  the  following  formula  to  determine  in  feet  the 
length  and  breadth  of  a  camp  for  an  army  of  any  given  size :  — 


Hi  MILITARY   SYSTEM 

1.  There  were  four  gates,  one  in  each  side:  (1)  the  Porta  Praeto- 
ria, in  front,  marked  Praetor  ia  in  the  plan;  (2)  the  Porta  Decumana, 
on  the  opposite  side,  marked  Decumana;  (3)  the  Porta  Principalis 
Dextra,  on  the  right  side,  marked  Dex.  ;  and  (4)  the  Porta  Principa- 
lis Sinistra,  on  the  left  side,  marked  Sin.1 

2.  Legat.  Trib.  =  Legati  et  Tribuni. 

3.  Aux.=  Auxilia. 

4.  The  figure  |}^|  represents  the  space  occupied  by  cavalry. 

5.  The  figure  |/|  the  space   occupied  by  the  general   and  staff,2 
together  with  troops  devoted  to  their  personal  service. 

6.  The  figure  |       |  the  space  occupied  by  the  archers  and  slingers. 

7.  The  rectangles  with  numerals  represent  the  spaces  occupied  by 
the  separate  cohorts.3 

67.  When  a  battle  was  anticipated,  the  camp  was  placed 
with  its  front  to  the  enemy ;  in  other  cases,  it  faced  in  the 
direction  in  which  the  army  was  marching.  It  was  divided 
internally  into  three  nearly  equal  parts  by  the  two  principal 
streets,  both  parallel  to  the  front  —  the  Via  Principalis  and 
the  Via  Quintana.  The  first  or  front  part  was  called  the 
Praetentura,  the  second  or  middle  part  the  Latera  praetor  ii, 
and  the  third  Retentura.  The  Via  Praetoria^  another 
important  street,  led  from  the  Porta  Praetoria  to  the  Via 
Principalis^  dividing  the  Praetentura  into  two  equal  parts. 
On  a  line  with  the  Via  Praetoria  were  situated  (1),  in  the 
middle  division  of  the  camp,  the  Praetorium,  —  the  head- 
quarters of  the  army,4  —  and  (2),  in  the  Retentura,  the 


/=  200v/c     and  s  =  1%  times  /. 

In  which/ equals  the  length  of  the  front,  c  the  number  of  cohorts  in  the  army, 
and  s  the  length  of  the  side. 

The  camp  represented  in  the  plan  is  intended  to  accommodate  five  legions,  or 
fifty  cohorts.  Here  c  =  50.  Hence  /  (th«  front)=  206  </5Q  =  200  X  7  =  1,400  feet. 
s  =  \V*  times  1,400  =  2,100  feet. 

1  Observe  that  the  corners  of  the  wall  are  rounded  so  as  to  be  more  easily 
defended. 

2  Except  the  lieutenants  and  tribunes. 

s  The  upper  numeral  is  the  number  of  the  legion*;    the  lower  numeral  the 


number  of  the  cohort.     Thus 


represents  the  space  occupied  by  the  fifth 


cohort  of  the  second  legion. 

4  The  Praetorium  extended  in  length  from  the  Via  Principalis  to  the  Via 
Quintana,  and  was  from  two  hundred  to  three  hundred  feet  wide.  In  it  were  the 
quarters  of  the  general,  the  altars  of  the  gods,  and  the  tribunal,  or  judgment-seat, 
of  the  army. 


OF   THE    ROMANS.  liii 

Quaestorium,  —  the    quarters    of    the    quaestor    and    his 
staff.1 

68.  In  the  plan  of  the  camp,  observe  (1)  that  between 
the  wall  and  the  tents  was  left  an  open  space,  probably  from 
one  hundred  to  two  hundred  feet  wide,  extending  entirely 
around  the  camp,  and  (2)  that  the  forces  were  distributed 
as  follows :  — 

1.  In  the  Praetentura  were  stationed  (1),  sixteen  of  the 
fifty  cohorts  ;  (2),  the  lieutenants  and  tribunes;  (3)>  one-half 
of  all  the  cavalry;  and  (4),  all  the  archers  and  slingers. 

2.  In  the  Middle  Division  of  the  camp,  called  Latera, 
praetorii,  were   stationed,  besides  the  commander-in-chief, 
who  occupied  the  Praetoriwn   (1),   twelve    of    the    fifty 
cohorts ;  (2),  one-half  of  all  the  cavalry ;  and  (3),  the  entire 
staff  of  the  commander-in-chief,  except  the  lieutenants  and 
the  tribunes,  together  with  the  troops  devoted  to  their  per- 
sonal service. 

3.  In  the  Retentura  were  stationed,  in  addition  to  the 
quaestor  and  his  staff,  (1)  twenty-two  of  the  fifty  cohorts,  and 
(2)  the  auxiliaries,  except  the  cavalry,  archers,  and  slingers.2 

69.  In  a  camp  intended  for  winter-quarters,  wooden  huts, 
thatched  with  straw,  took  the  place  of  ordinary  tents,  and 
sheds  were  erected  to  protect  the  beasts  of  burden  from 
wind  and  weather.      Moreover,  the  space   allowed  to  the 
different  parts  of  the  army  was  doubtless  somewhat  more 
ample  than  in  a  summer  camp. 

70.  The  fortifications  of  the  camp  consisted  of  a  wall, 
vallum,  and  a  ditch,  or  fosse,  fossa.     The  wall  seems  to 
have  been  ordinarily  about  6  feet  high,  and  6  or  8  feet 
broad  at  the  top,  the  ditch  about  9  feet  wide  at  the  top, 
and  7  feet  deep.3      Doubtless,  in  fortifying  a   permanent 
camp,  castra  stativa,  in  a  hostile  country,  the  ditch  was 

1  The  Quaestorium  furnished  quarters,  not  only  for  the  quaestor  and  his  staff, 
but,  also,  for  foreign  ambassadors,  and  for  hostages  and  prisoners.    In  it  were 
also  stored  the  supplies  and  the  booty. 

2  Observe  in  the  internal  arrangements  of  the  camp  that  the  auxiliaries,  both 
cavalry  and  infantry,  are  stationed  near  the  general  and  his  staff,  and  that  they 
are  completely  surrounded  by  the  legionary  soldiers. 

3  Vegetius,  Book  I.,  24,  says  that  the  ordinary  ditch  was  either  9  feet  wide 
and  7  feet  deep,  or  12  feet  wide  and  9  feet  deep.   In  these  dimensions,  it  has  been 
observed  that  the  width,  as  9  or  12,  is  divisible  by  3,  and  that  the  depth  is 
obtained  by  adding  one  to  |  of  the  width,  as  width  9,  depth  f  of  9+  1  =  7,  or 


liv  MILITAKY    SYSTEM 

made  wider  and  deeper,  and  the  wall  higher  and  broader.1 
It  was  sometimes  surmounted  with  a  breastwork  of  pali- 
sades, lorica?  and  in  special  cases  wooden  towers  were  erected 
on  it  at  convenient  intervals.  Each  gate  was  probably  40 
feet  wide,  and  was  defended  within  and  without  either  by 
a  transverse  or  by  a  tambour,  as  seen  in  the  above  plan.8 

71.  The  following  figure  represents  a  vertical  section  of  a 
wall  and  ditch,  the  former  surmounted  with  a  breastwork 
of  palisades:  — 


Vertical  Section  of  a  Wall  and  Ditch. 


abed  represents  a  ditch,  fossa  fastigata,  9  feet  wide  and  7  feet  deep. 
Imno,  a  wall  or  rampart,  vallum,  6  feet  high,  and  6  feet  wide  at  the 
top,  furnished  with  steps  on  the  inside,  i.e.,  on  the  side  '  rnrsn.' 
pp,  palisades, 
ff,  fascines  imbedded  in  the  work,  to  strengthen  it. 

width  12,  depth  |  of  12  -f- 1  =9.  Rustow  infers  that  these  instances  are  illustra- 
tions of  a  law,  and  that  having  the  width  of  any  ditch,  we  can  thus  at  once 
obtain  the  depth.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  Caesar  generally  gives  only  the  width. 

In  opposition  to  the  view  of  Riistow,  Goler  thinks  that  the  normal  depth  of  a 
ditch,  whatever  its  width,  was  9  feet,  and  that  Caesar  specifies  the  depth  only 
when  it  does  not  conform  to  the  ordinary  standard. 

1  It  has  been  observed  that  when  Caesar  gives  the  height  of  a  wall  with  the 
width  of  the  accompanying  ditch,  as  ditch  9  feet  wide,  wall  6  feet  high ;  ditch 
15  feet  wide,  wall  10  feet  high  ;  ditch  18  feet  wide,  wall  12  feet  high,  the  height 
of  the  wall  is  f  of  the  width  of  the  ditch.    This  Riistow  believes  to  be  the  regular 
law.    Indeed,  some  such  relation  as  this  between  the  dimensions  of  the  ditch 
an  i  the  wall  seems  natural,  as  the  earth  thrown  out  of  the  former  was  used  in 
constructing  the  latter. 

2  The  breastwork  was  usually  made  by  driving  green  stakes  into  the  ground, 
and   by  binding   them  firmly  together  by  intertwining    their  branches.     The 
general  height  of  the  breastwork  was  four  or  five  feet,  but  in  some  instances 
pinnacles,  pinnae,  projected  above  it  two  or  three  feet,  as  seen  in  the  figure  in  71. 

3  The  Gauls  and  the  Germans  fortified  their  camps,  not  by  permanent  works 
like  the  Romans,  but  by  arranging  their  chariots  and  wagons  in  a  circle,  and 
using  them  as  a  rampart.    After  a  defeat,  they  often  retreated  to  these  tempo- 
rary defences.    See  Book  I.,  26. 


OF   THE    ROMANS.  lv 

72.  The  side  of  the  ditch  nearest  to  the  wall  is  called 
the  scarp,  and  the  opposite  side,  the  counterscarp.    A  ditch 
with  sloping  sides,  as  in  the  figure,  was  called  fossa  fasti- 
gata  ;  with  vertical  sides,  fossa  directis  lateribus,  and  with 
sloping  scarp  but  vertical  counterscarp, /bssa  punica.1 

73.  The  wall  was  constructed  largely  from  the  earth  and 
stone  taken  from  the  ditch,  but  to  give  the  structure  greater 
firmness  and  strength,  branches  of  trees,  bushes,  stakes,  and 
fascines  were  imbedded  in  it.     When  the  sides  of  the  wall 
were  quite  steep,  they  were  usually  covered  with  sods  or 
with  brush  in  the  form  of  fascines.     Sometimes  logs  were 
used    for  the   same   purpose.      Moreover,  these   logs   and 
fascines  could  be  arranged  in  steps,  so  that  from  within  the 
bank  or  wall  could  be  easily  ascended.     See  figure  in  71. 
The  selection  of  the  place  for  the  camp  was  a  duty  which 
required  skill,  judgment,  and  experience.2   Accordingly,  this 
important  trust  was  generally  committed  to  a  tribune,  or  to 
some  other  officer  of  the  staff,  at  the  head  of  a  detachment 
of  centurions  and  legionaries.     They  marched  in  advance  of 
the  main  body  of  the  army,  under  the  protection  of  the  van- 
guard, and  were  expected  to  have  the  outlines  of  the  camp 
well  defined  on  the  arrival  of  the  legions. 

74.  For    Roman    soldiers,  marching   through   a  hostile 
country,  no  small  part  of  each  day's  work  was  the  fortifica- 
tion of  the  camp,  but  they  shrunk  from  no  labor,  and  wrere 
scarcely  less  expert  with  the  pick  and  the  spade  than  with 
the  spear  and  the  sword.     With  such  laborers,  three  or  four 
hours,  in  the  judgment  of  Riistow,  would  be  ample  for  the 
complete  fortification  of  the  camp. 

75.  But  Roman  camps  in  a  hostile  country  were  not  only 
strongly   fortified,   but   also   carefully  guarded.     In   cases 
requiring  only   ordinary   vigilance,   the    duty  of    keeping 
guard    during    the    night-watches   was   entrusted    to   five 
cohorts   detailed   for  the   purpose   from   different  legions. 

1  The  first  form  was  generally  used  by  Caesar,  though  the  second  also  occurs. 
See  Book  VII.,  72. 

2  It  was  of  vital  importance  that  the  camp  should  be  pitched,  if  possible,  on  a 
gently  sloping  hillside  of  sufficient  extent,  within  easy  reach  of  a  good  supply  of 
wood  and  water.    It  was  also  important  that  it  should  not  be  near  any  hill  from 
which  an  enemy  could  reconnoitre  it,  or  near  any  dense  forest  in  which  he  could 
be  concealed. 


Ivi  MILITARY    SYSTEM 

The  tattoo,  the  signal  for  setting  the  night-watches,  was 
sounded  at  nightfall.  A  cohort  was  stationed  at  each  gate, 
and  sentinels  were  posted  on  every  part  of  the  wall.  A 
fifth  cohort  was  detailed  for  guard  duty  in  the  quarters  of 
the  general  and  quaestor,  while  every  cohort  had  its  own 
sentry.  In  cases  of  unusual  peril,  the  guard  was  greatly 
strengthened  ;  sometimes  two  or  three  cohorts  guarded  each 
gate. 

As  the  night  was  divided  into  four  equal  watches,  the 
guard  was  divided  into  four  reliefs,  each  one  of  which  was 
on  duty  during  one-fourth  of  the  night.  The  three  reliefs 
not  on  duty  slept  upon  their  arms,  as  a  sort  of  picket- 
guard. 

76.  The  reveille  was  sounded  at  daybreak.    If  the  march 
was  to  be  resumed,  three  successive  signals  were  sounded. 
At  the  first  signal,  the  tents  were  struck ;  at  the  second,  the 
beasts  of  burden  received  their  loads ;  and  at  the  third,  the 
column  moved.     If,  however,  a  battle  was  imminent,  the 
march  was  not  resumed ;  the  tents  were  left  standing,  and 
the  camp  was  committed  to  the  care  of  a  strong  guard.1 
Then  the  soldiers,  disencumbered  of  their  knapsacks,  and 
armed  and  equipped  for  action,  truly  expediti,  marched  out 
of  the  camp,  and  were  at  once  marshalled  in  line  of  battle. 

77.  Roman  generals  made  it  an  unfailing  rule  to  take 
every  possible  advantage   of  position.     For  them  an  open 
plain  was  not  a  good  battle-field.     The  Roman  mode  of 
attack  required  an  elevated  position,  from  which  the  heavy 
javelins  could  be  hurled  into  the  ranks  of  the  enemy  with 
the  greatest  effect.2 

MILITARY  STANDARDS  AND  MARTIAL  Music. 

78.  The  general  standard  of  the  army  was  the  banner, 
vexillum^  of  the  commander-in-chief.     When  displayed  from 
the  general's  tent  in  the  Praetorium,  it  was  a  signal  to 

1  This  guard  sometimes  consisted  of  four  or  five  cohorts,  detailed  from  sepa- 
rate legions,  and  sometimes  of  one  or  more  legions   recently  enrolled.    See 
Book  III.,  26  ;  Book  II.,  8. 

2  For  Caesar's  own  description  of  his  favorite  position  for  marshalling  his 
army  for  battle,  see  Book  II.,  8.    From  this  description,  we  see  how  very  impor- 
tant it  was  that  the  camp  should  be  pitched  upon  a  hillside  of  sufficient  extent  to 
enable  the  general  to  marshal  his  army  for  battle  near  his  camp,  if  not  in  front 
of  it. 


OF  THE   ROMANS.  Ivii 

prepare  for  immediate  action,  and  when  waved  before  the 
legions  advancing  in  order  of  battle,  it  was  the  signal  for 
the  charge,  incur sus.  It  contained  the  name  of  the  general 
and  of  the  army,  inscribed  in  large  red  letters  on  a  white 
ground. 

79.  Each  legion  had  its  own  standard,  which  was  en- 
trusted to  the  special  care  of  the  chief  centurion,  iheprimi- 
pilus  of  the  legion.1    It  was  an  eagle  of  the  size  of  a  dove, 
generally  of  silver,  though  under  the  empire  sometimes  of 
gold.     The  eagle  was  represented  with  uplifted  wings,  as 
seen  in  plate  I.,  9.     Sometimes  a  small  banner,  vexillum,  on 
which  was  embroidered  the  number  of  the  legion,  was  placed 
directly  below  the  eagle. 

80.  The  ten   cohorts2  of  the  legion   had  their  special 
standards,  signaf  which  were  of  various  forms,  sometimes 
very  simple 4  and  sometimes  more  elaborate.    For  specimens 
of  the  latter,  see  plate  L,  5. 

81.  The  standards  carried  by  the  cavalry,  by  the  light- 
armed  infantry,  and   by  detachments  detailed  for  special 
service,  were  simple  banners,  vexilla.5    For  the  general  ap- 
pearance, form,  and  size  of  the  vexilla,  see  plate  I.,  5,  and 
plate  II.,  8.6 

82.  The  chief  musical  instrument  in  a  Roman  army,  and 
indeed  the  only  one  mentioned  in  the  Commentaries  on  the 
Gallic  war,   was  the  trumpet,  tuba.1     This  was  a  wind  in- 
strument of  brass  in  the  form  of  a  modern  trumpet.     The 
only  musicians  mentioned  by  Caesar,  in  either  of  his  works,8 

1  The  loss  of  a  standard  was  a  calamity  and  a  disgrace,  both,  to  the  standard- 
bearer  and  to  the  legion. 

2  Goler  thinks  that  the  maniples  had  standards,  and  that  the  standard  of  the 
first  maniple  was  also  the  standard  of  the  entire  cohort,  but  Riistow  rejects  this 
view  as  utterly  untenable. 

3  The  general  name  for  a  standard  was  signum,  and  for  a  standard-bearer 
signifer,  but  the  more  specific  names  aquila  and  aquili'er  were  generally  used  to 
designate  the  standard  and  the  standard-bearer  of  the  legion.    The  bravest  and 
strongest  soldiers  were  selected  as  standard-bearers.    See  Book  IV.,  25 ;  also 
signiferi  in  plate  II.,  5. 

*  A  standard  was  sometimes  simply  the  figure  of  an  open  hand  upon  a  staff, 
and  sometimes  the  figure  of  an  animal,  as  a  wolf  or  an  ox. 

6  See  Book  VI.,  36. 

e  Observe  in  plate  II.,  5,  that  one  of  the  elaborate  standards  has  a  vexlllum  at 
the  top. 

7  Goler  thinks  that  every  century  had  at  least  one  tuba. 

*  See  Book  II.,  20,  Book  VII.,  47  ;  and  Civil  War,  Book  II.,  35. 


Iviii  MILITARY    SYSTEM 

are  the  tubicines  and  the  bucinatores?  both  of  whom  are 
represented  with  their  instruments  in  plate  II.,  6  and  7 ;  but 
the  lituus,  a  modification  of  the  trumpet,  curved  near  the 
end  was  doubtless  used  in  the  cavalry.2 

ROMAN  MODE  OF  ATTACK. 

83.  When  the  Roman  general  had  secured  his  favorite 
position  on  the  gentle  declivities  of  a  range  of  hills  with  the 
enemy  sufficiently  near  in  the  plain  below,  he  ordered  the 
signal    to    be    sounded  with    the   trumpet.      The   legions 
advanced  slowly  and  steadily  in  order  of  battle  until  they 
were  within  five  hundred  or  six  hundred  feet  of  the  enemy, 
when  the  standard  of  the  com mandei -in-chief  was  displayed, 
and  the  united  blasts  of  the  horn  and  the  trumpet  sounded 
the  signal  for  the  charge.    From  this  point,  the  legions,  with 
poised  javelins  in  their  front  ranks,  pilis  infestis,  advanced 
upon  the  run  until  the  hostile  lines  were  within  forty  or 
fifty  feet  of  each  other,  when  a  salvo  of  javelins  from  the 
front  of  the  legions  carried  consternation  and  death  into 
the  ranks  of  the  opposing   phalanx.3    Then,  with   drawn 
swords,  the  Roman  soldiers  charged  the  broken  ranks  of 
the  foe.4 

84.  Thus  all  along  the  front  line  a  deadly  conflict  was 
waged  hand  to  hand,  —  a  series  of  duels,  as  Riistow  ex- 
presses it.5     For  the  moment,  it  was  of  course  impossible  to 

1  It  seems  probable  that  the  bucinator  used  not  only  tbe  bucina,  but  also  the 
cornu,  the  horn,  a  wind  instrument  made  generally  from  the  horn  of  a  wild  ox, 
and  furnished  with  a  silver  mouth-piece,   but  sometimes  made    from  brass. 
According  to  Goler,  the  various  military  evolutions  were  first  signalled  by  the 
horn,  and  then  proclaimed  throughout  the  army  by  the  trumpet.    The  classicum, 
which,  on  the  field  of  battle,  was  the  signal  for  the  charge,  was  made  by  the 
united  blasts  of  the  horn  and  the  trumpet. 

2  Lucan,  Pharsalia,  I.,  237,  characterizes  the  notes  of  the  lituus  and  the  tuba 
in  these  words  :  stridor  lituum  clangorque  tubarum. 

3  The  pila  which  penetrated  the  hostile  shields  often  stuck  fast  in  them,  thus 
rendering  the  men  unfit  for  action.    Sometimes  three  or  more  shields  in  the 
dense  phalanx  were  pinned  together  by  these  weapons.    See  Book  I.,  25. 

*  This  onset  of  the  Roman  legions  with  pilum  and  sword  has  been  compared 
to  a  volley  of  musketry,  instantly  followed  by  a  bayonet-charge. 

It  is  not  probable  that  all  the  men  in  the  front  rank  charged  with  the  sword 
at  the  same  time,  as  they  stood  too  close  together  in  rank  and  file  to  allow  the 
free  use  of  that  weapon.  Rustow  conjectures  that  the  odd  numbers  in  the  front 
rank  sprang  forward,  while  the  even  numbers  kept  their  places  in  the  line,  and 
that  thus  each  man  secured  ample  room  for  the  charge. 

6  In  this  account  of  the  Roman  mode  of  attack,  we  have  followed  Riistow. 


OF   THE   ROMANS.  lix 

preserve  unbroken  ranks  in  the  front  of  the  cohorts  thus 
engaged.  Along  the  front  line,  the  whole  of  the  first 
century  of  each  maniple  participated,  'either  directly  or 
indirectly,  in  the  terrible  struggle.  While  the  first  two 
ranks  bore  the  brunt  of  the  battle,  the  other  three,  as  oppor- 
tunity offered,  hurled  their  javelins  over  the  heads  of  the 
combatants  into  the  hostile  ranks  in  the  rear,  and  held 
themselves  in  readiness  to  rush  to  the  relief  of  their  com- 
panions in  case  of  need.  Meanwhile,  the  second  century  of 
each  maniple,  remaining  firm  and  immovable,  gave  stability 
to  the  line. 

85.  Thus  far  the  cohorts  of  the  second  line  had  taken  no 
part  in  the  battle ;  but  soon  they,  too,  were  seen  to  be  in 
motion,  and,  advancing  quickly  in  battle-array  through  the 
intervals  of  the  first  line,  they  hurled  their  javelins  into  the 
ranks  of  the  bewildered  foe,  and  then  with  drawn  swords 
rushed   into  the   thickest   of    the   fight.      The   exhausted 
cohorts,  thus  timely  relieved,  retired  to  reform  their  shat- 
tered line,  and  to  recover  breath  and  strength  for  a  new 
onset.     Thus  the  first   and  second  lines  continued  the  con- 
flict,  alternately  relieving  each    other,1  until  the   enemy, 
exhausted  and  demoralized,  yielded  to  the  repeated  onsets 
of  the  Roman  cohorts.     The  third  line  formed  the  reserve, 
and  was  summoned  to  the  front  only  in  cases  of  special  need.2 

ROMAN  METHOD  OF  TAKING  FORTIFIED  PLACES. 

86.  The  Romans  recognized  three  different  methods  of 
taking  fortified  places :  — 

1.  By  Storm,  Assault  —  oppugnatio  repentina. 

2.  By  Investment,  Blockade  —  obsidio. 

3.  By  Siege,  with  active  operations  —  oppugnatio  oper- 
ibus. 

1  In  the  opinion  of  Rustow,  a  line  of  Roman  cohorts  seldom  remained  in  active 
conflict  more  than  fifteen  minutes  at  a  time. 

2  The  Gallic  mode  of  conducting  a  battle  was  wholly  unlike  the  Roman. 
The  Gauls  staked  the  issue  largely  on  the  first  onset.    Raising  their  fearful 
battle-cry,  they  advanced  against  the  enemy  in  solid  phalanx,  and  strove  to  over- 
whelm him  by  the  mere  momentum  and  weight  of  moving  masses. 

The  unit  in  the  German  line  of  battle  was  the  solid  wedge,  the  cuneus,  so 
celebrated  in* the  early  history  of  Germany.    The  different  tribes  were  massed 
separately.    The  charge  on  the  field  of  battle  was  an  impetuous  onset  in  masses. 
See  Book  I.,  51. 
D 


Ix 


MILITARY    SYSTEM 


87.  In  attacking  fortified  towns,  the  Romans  often 
employed  certain  engines  which  corresponded  to  artil- 
lery in  modern  warfare.  They  were  designated  by 
the  general  name  tormenta,  from  torqueo,  to  twist,  as 
their  motive  power  was  derived  from  the  torsion  of 
firmly  twisted  ropes ;  but  they  were  of  several  varieties. 

1.  The  Scorpion — 
scorpio — was  a  large 
cross-bow,  resting  on 
a  standard,  as  seen 
in  the  accompanying 


Scorpion. 


figure. 

2.  The  Catapult  — 
catapulta  —  was  an 
engine  for  hurling 
heavy  javelins  or  oth- 
er missiles.  This  was 
also  a  modification  of 
the  cross-bow ;  but  the  arms  of  the  bow  were  straight  sticks 
of  timber,  and  its  elasticity,  or  its  power  of  recoil,  was  pro- 
duced by  the  torsion  of  a  large  rope,  or  cable,  made  from 
hair  or  sinews  twisted  to  the  greatest  possible  tension.1  The 
construction  of  the  catapult,  and  the  mode  of  working  it,  are 
seen  in  the  following  figure :  — 


Catapult. 


1  Only  the  very  strongest  hair  was  used  for  this  purpose  ;  and  Jahns  suggests 
that  it  was  probably  subjected  to  a  special  process  to  increase  its  strength.  The 
sinews  and  tendons  from  the  necks  of  bulls  and  from  the  legs  of  goats,  were 
especially  prized  for  this  purpose. 

Observe  that  the  two  sticks  of  timber,  '  a*  and  *b,J  are  inserted  in  two  large 
ropes,  or  cables,  and  that  their  ends,  like  the  ends  of  a  bow,  are  connected 
together  by  a  strong  cord.  In  working  the  catapult,  the  middle  of  this  cord  was 
drawn  back  by  means  of  a  windlass,  'cd.'  Practically,  therefore,  the  catapult 
was  a  bow  of  immense  power. 


OF   THE    ROMANS.  Ixi 

3.  The  Ballista  was  an  engine  for  hurling  balls,  stones, 
and  even  heavy  sticks  of  wood.     In  principle  the  motive 
power  was  the  same  as  in  the  catapult,  from  which  it  dif- 
fered mainly  in  the  fact  that  it  hurled  missiles  at  an  angle 
of  45  degrees.     For  the  mode  of  working  the  ballista l  see 
figure  5  in  the  foreground  of  plate  Y. 

4.  The  Onager  was  a  modification  of  the  catapult.    It  had 
only  one  arm,  and  that  arm  worked  vertically,  while  the 
arms  of  the  catapult  worked  horizontally.     See  figure  4  in 
the  foreground  of  plate  V.2 

88.  The  Turris  ambulatoria  was  a  movable  tower,  often 
used  by  the  Romans  in  attacking  fortified  cities.     It  was,  of 
course,  of  various  sizes ;  but  ordinarily  it  consisted  of  ten 
stories,  and  was  about   ninety  feet  high,  twenty-five  feet 
square  at  the  base  and  twenty  at  the  top.3     Each  story  had 
an  outer  gallery,  extending  entirely  around  it.   See  plate  V.,  1 . 

89.  The  tower,  which  was  moved  forward  by  means  of 
rollers  worked  from  within,  was  supplied  with  one  or  more 
drawbridges,  which,  on  being  let  down  upon  the  wall,  fur- 
nished the  attacking  party  a  passage  to  the  enemy's  works. 
The  lower  story  was  usually  supplied  with  a  battering-ram ; 
while  the  upper  stories  were  occupied  with  the  engines  of 
war  —  the  tormenta.     The  turns  ambulatoria^  armed  with 
the  battering-ram  and  the  tormenta^  and  well  supplied  with 
archers  and  slingers,  was  a  movable  battery  of  great  power. 

90.  The    Vinea,  used  to  protect  soldiers  and  workmen 
during  siege  operations,  was  a  movable  shed  or  arbor,  rest- 
ing on  rollers.     According  to  Vegetius,  it  was  usually  16 


1  According  to  Rustow  und  Kochly,  Geschiclite  des  griechischen  Kriegswesens, 
Book  IV.,  3,  the  ballista  had  such  remarkable  projectile  force  that  it  threw  heavy, 
missiles,  on  an  average,  a  quarter  of  a  mile,  and  that  it  sometimes  reached  twice 
that  distance. 

In  the  Commentaries  on  the  Civil  War,  Book  II.,  2,  Caesar  tells  us  that  beams, 
or  poles,  12  feet  long,  pointed  with  iron,  hurled  from  ballistae,  passed  through 
four  rows  of  hurdles,  probably  in  the  form  of  vineae  (90),  or  plutei  (92),  and 
planted  themselves  in  the  earth. 

The  ballista  is  sometimes  compared  to  the  modern  mortar.  It  was  capable  of 
throwing  missiles  of  great  weight.  Stones  weighing  from  one  hundred  to  one 
hundred  and  thirty  pounds  were  at  times  hurled  by  it.  See  Rustow  uud  Kochly; 
also  Schambach,  Geschutzverwendung  bei  den  Romern.  —  Altenburg :  1883. 

2  Observe  that  the  arm  is  drawn  down  by  means  of  a  windlass,  and  that  it  flies 
back  with  great  violence  as  soon  as  it  is  released. 

3  Atheuaeus,  the  author  of  a  work,  irtpi  M/7xa»''y^ara>»',  written,  probably,  about 
200  B.  C.,  mentions  a  tower  180  feet  high  and  35  feet  square  at  the  base. 


Ixii 


MILITARY    SYSTEM 


Vinea. 


feet  long,  7  wide,  and  8  high.     The  roof  was  of  timber,  or 

thick  plank,  supported  by 
upright  posts;  the  sides 
were  of  strong  wicker-work. 
It  was  sometimes  entirely 
open  at  both  ends,  and 
sometimes  partially  closed. 
The  roof  and  sides  were 
covered  with  raw  hides,  as 
a  protection  against  fire. 

91.  The  Musculus  was  a  variety  of  the  vinea.    It  was  of 

smaller  size  than  the  ordinary 
vinea,  but  of  much  greater 
strength,  as  it  was  intended  to 
be  used  in  the  immediate  vi- 
cinity of  the  enemy's  works, 
especially  to  protect  sappers 
and  miners  in  undermining 
the  wall.1  See  the  accom- 

Musculus.  .         /> 

panying  figure. 

92.  The  Pluteus  was  a  movable  breastwork,  or  screen, 


Plutei. 


1  Caesar,  in  his  Commentaries  on  the  Civil  War,  Book  II.,  10,  has  described 
the  kind  of  musculus  which  he  used  in  the  siege  of  Massilia.  It  was  so  strong 
that  blocks  of  stone  hurled  from  the  top  of  the  wall  fell  harmless  upon  it.  The 
roof  was  made  of  sticks  of  timber  two  feet  thick,  overlaid  with  brick  and  mortar, 
covered  with  raw  hides. 


OF   THE    KOMANS.  Ixiii 

resting  on  rollers.  It  was  usually  seven  or  eight  feet  in 
height,  and  was  supplied  with  loop-holes,  through  which 
archers  could  discharge  their  arrows.  It  was  of  various 
.forms,  as  seen  in  figures  1,  2,  and  3. 

93.  The   Testudo  arietaria,  also  used  in  storming  cities, 
consisted  of  a  movable  shed,  like  a  vinea,  in  which  was  sus- 
pended a  battering-ram  (aries),  in  the  form  of  a  heavy  stick 
of  timber,  from  sixty  to  a  hundred  feet  long,  armed  with  a 
large  head  of  bronze  or  iron.     It  was  worked  by  men  under 
the  cover  of  the  testudo,  and  was  used  to  effect  a  breach 
in  the  wall.     For  the  general  appearance  of  this  machine, 
and  the  mode  of  working  it,  see  the  testudo  arietaria  bat- 
tering the  tower  in  the  background  of  plate  V.1 

THE  STORMING  OF  CITIES  —  Oppugnatio  repentina. 

94.  This  method   of  attack  was  usually  adopted  when 
there  was  a  reasonable  prospect  of  immediate  success  with- 
out great  loss,  especially  in  proceeding  against  cities  which 
were    well    supplied    with    provisions,    but   were    neither 
strongly  garrisoned  nor  defended  by  formidable  works. 

95.  Aided  by  his  engines  of  war,  a  Roman  general  who 
could  lead  veteran  legions  to  the  attack  sometimes  found 
the  capture  of  a  walled  town  a  comparatively  easy  task. 

96.  Archers  and  slingers,  protected  by  plutei,  and  sharp- 
shooters with  catapults  and  ballistae,  drove  the  enemy  from 
his  works.     Some  filled  the  moat,  while  others,  under  the 
cover  of  musculi,  strove  to  undermine  the  wall,  or  to  set 
fire  to  the  gates ;  the  tower  was  moved  slowly  forward,  the 
battering-ram  began  its  work  ;  numerous  storming  columns, 

i  Caesar  seems  to  have  made  little  use  of  the  battering-ram.  The  Gallic 
walls,  according  to  his  description,  Book  VII.,  23,  were  so  substantially  con- 
structed, of  large  beams,  stones,  and  earth,  that  they  could  not  be  destroyed 
either  by  tire  or  by  the  battering-ram.  The  following  figure  is  from  Goler  :  — 


Vertical  Section  of  Gallic  Wall. 


Ixiv 


MILITARY   SYSTEM 


forming  the  testudo,  with  their  shields  close-locked  over 
their  heads,  as  seen  in  plate  V.,  ad- 
vanced to  the  attack ;  the  ladders  were 
quickly  applied ;  the  sharpshooters,  arch- 
ers, and  slingers,  redoubled  their  ef- 
forts ;  the  walls  were  scaled ;  the  gates 
were  thrown  open,  and  the  legions 
entered. 


INVESTMENT,  BLOCKADE  OF  CITIES  — 
Obsidio. 

97.  The  Romans  sometimes  compelled 
hostile  cities  to  surrender,  by  enclosing 
them  so  completely  within  a  continuous 
line  of  strong  fortifications,  that  neither 
supplies  nor  succor  could  reach  them. 
This  plan  was  adopted  when  the  place 
was  too  strongly  fortified  and  too  strong- 
ly  garrisoned  to  be  taken  by  storm,  es- 
pecially  if  the  population  was  large,  arid 
the  supply  of  provisions  limited.  To 
ensure  success,  it  was  sometimes  neces- 
sary  to  construct  a  second  line  of  works 
at  a  suitable  distance  from  the  first,  and 
outside  of  the  investing  army,  as  a  pre- 
caution  against  attack  from  without,  in 
case  any  attempt  should  be  made  to  re- 
lieve  the  city. 

The  most  remarkable  instance  men- 
tioned  in  the  Commentaries  of  this 
method  of  taking  fortified  towns,  was 
the  investment  of  Alesia.  The  town 
was  garrisoned  by  a  force  of  80,000 
Gauls ;  Caesar  invested  it,  and  for  forty 
days  he  lay  intrenched  before  it  be- 
tween two  concentric  lines  of  almost 
impregnable  works ;  a  mighty  array  of 
confederate  Gauls,  250,000  strong,  ar- 
rived in  the  rear  of  his  intrenchments ; 


OF   THE   KOMANS.  Ixv 

but  Roman  valor  triumphed,  and  Alesia  surrendered  to  the 
conqueror. 

98.  The  works  with  which  Caesar  enclosed  this  stronghold 
of  the  Gauls  were  in  some  respects  among  the  most  remark- 
able mentioned  in  Roman  history.      The  figure  on  the  pre- 
ceding page,  from  Napoleon  and  Goler,  represents  a  vertical 
section  of  the  inner  line  of  works,  called  in  modern  phrase- 
ology, contra  vallation.1 

SIEGE  OF  FORTIFIED  PLACES  —  Oppugnatio  Operibus. 

99.  With  the  Romans,  a  formal  siege  involved,  not  only 
the  use  of  all  the  ordinary  engines  of  war,  but  also  the  long 
and  tedious  labor  of  constructing  an  agger.    It  was  resorted 
to  only  in  difficult  cases,  when  a  simple  investment  would 
be  inadequate  and  when  a  direct  assault  without  special 
preparation  would  promise  little  success.     The  agger  was  a 
mound,  or  rampart,  beginning  several  hundred  feet  from 
the  wall  of  the  besieged  city,  and  extending  directly  toward 
it,  until  it  finally  reached  and  overtopped  it,  and  thus  fur- 
nished a  broad  highway,  on  which  a  storming  column  could 
advance  directly  to  the  highest  part  of  the  enemy's  works.2 

100.  An  agger  of  the  ordinary  dimensions,  400  or  500 
feet  long,  50  or  60  feet  wide,  and  from  50  to  80  feet  high,3 
required  for  its  construction  an  enormous  amount  of  timber, 
stones,  earth,  and  brush.    The  trunks  of  trees  from  20  to  40 
feet  in  length,  and  from  1  to  2  feet  in  thickness,  were  of  the 
first  importance ;  indeed  the  words  of  Lucan  must  have  been 
at  times  almost  literally  true  4 :  — 

"Procumbunt  nemora  et  spoliantur  robore  silvae." 

1  In  modern  phraseology,  the  inner  line,  or  that  which  invests  the  city,  is 
called  contravallation,  that  outside  of  the  investing  army,  circumv dilation. 

This  line  of  works  was  11  Roman  miles  in  length,  and  400  feet  in  width. 
Observe  that  on  the  side  toward  the  city  was  a  ditch  20  feet  wide  ;  that  on  the 
opposite  side,  400  feet  from  this  ditch,  was  a  rampart  12  feet  high,  and  that 
between  these  two  points  were  arranged  (1)  two  ditches,  each  15  feet  wide;  (2) 
five  rows  of  trunks  of  trees,  with  branches  sharpened  to  a  point,  so  planted  in 
the  earth  that  only  the  branches  were  in  sight,  called  cippi ;  (3)  eight  rows  of 
small  pits  3  feet  deep,  each  with  a  sharpened  stake  firmly  set  in  its  centre,  called 
lilia,  lilies,  and  (4)  an  indefinite  number  of  short  stakes  entirely  sunk  in  the 
earth,  to  which  iron  hooks  were  attached,  called  stimuli,  spurs. 

2  In  some  cases  the  agger  did  not  reach  the  top  of  the  wall,  but  was  sur- 
mounted by  one  or  more  towers,  which,  on  being  moved  up  to  the  enemy's 
works,  secured  the  necessary  height  for  the  storming  party. 

8  The  agger  at  Avaricum  was  80  feet  high.    See  Book  VII.,  24. 
*  Lucan's  Pharsalia.  III.,  395. 


Ixvi  MILITARY    SYSTEM 

101.  To  aid  the  learner  in  understanding  the  more  impor- 
tant steps  in  a  formal  siege,  we  add  the  following  illustra- 
tions. Fig.  1,  page  lix,  Ground  Plan  of  Siege  Operations:  — 

1.  ABCD  represents  the  enemy's  wall. 

2.  abed,  the  space  to  be  occupied  by  the  agger. 

3.  mm,  musculi,  protecting  laborers  levelling  the  ground. 

4.  VV,  the  line  of  vineae,  forming  a  covered  way  through  which 
materials  were  brought  for  the  agger. 

5.  PP,  a  line  of  plutei,  protecting  the  men  while  building  the  first 
section  of  the  agger. 

6.  TT,  turres  ambulitoriae,  armed  with  tormenta,  and  supplied 
with  archers  and  slingers. 

7.  pppp,  a  continuous  line  of  plutei,  nearly  parallel  to  the  enemy's 
wall,  protecting  archers  and  slingers. 

8.  w,  vv,  two  lines  of  vineae,  parallel  to  the  agger,  forming  each 
a  covered  way  by  which  soldiers  passed  to  the  towers  and  to  the  lines 
ofplutei.1 

9.  cdef,  a  horizontal  section  of  a  part  of  the  first  story  of  the 
agger,  showing  how  the  logs  were  arranged,  with  intervals  between 
them,  and  in  layers  at  right  angles  with  each  other,  showing  also  an 
open  gallery  or  way  through  the  middle. 

102.  An  agger,  80  feet  in  height,  usually  consisted  of 
eight  or  ten  stories.     On  each  floor  was  an  open  gallery,  or 
hall,  10  or  12  feet  wide  and  8  or  10  feet  high,  extending  the 
•whole   length  of    the   agger.      The  work  of  construction 
began  at  a  distance  of  400  or  500  feet  from  the  enemy's  wall, 
from  which  most  of  its  defenders  had  been  driven  by  the 
archers  and  slingers  behind  the  line  of  pluteiy  and  by  the 
artillery-men  in  the  towers.     The  materials  were  brought 
through  the  covered  way  formed  by  the  line  of  vineae  '  W,' 
while  those  who  were  engaged  in  the  actual  work  of  con- 
struction were  protected  by  the  phitei,  *  PP.'     First,  large 
logs  were  placed  firmly  upon  the  ground  parallel  to  each 
other  and  at  suitable  intervals;   upon  these  was  placed  a 
second  layer  of  logs  at  right  angles  with  them,  as  seen  in 
figure  1.    The  open  spaces  between  the   logs  were   then 
filled  with  earth,  stones,  sods,  brush,  etc.      Through   the 
middle  was  left  a  passage,  or  open  gallery,  10  or  12  feet 
wide,  as  stated  above.     The  work  continued  in  this  way 

1  The  line  of  plutei,  parallel  to  the  enemy's  works,  and  the  lines  of  vineae 
leading  to  it,  are  sometimes  compared  to  the  parallels  and  approaches  in  modern 
warfare. 


OF  THE   ROMANS. 


Ixvii 


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Ixviii 


MILITARY    SYSTEM 


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OF   THE   ROMANS.  Ixix 

until  the  sides  reached  the  height  of  8  or  10  feet,  when  the 
open  passage  was  covered  overhead  with  a  layer  of  timbers 
placed  across  it.  Thus  was  finished  the  first  section  of  the 
first  story  of  the  agger. 

103.  The  plutei)  <PP,'  were  next  moved  forward  30  or  40 
feet,  and  under  their  protection  the  second  section  of  the 
first  story  was  constructed  in  the  same  style  and  manner  as 
the  first  section.1    A  line  of  plutei,  *  P,'  as  seen  in  figure  2, 
was  then  placed  across  the  front  of  the  second  floor,  and  the 
building  of  the  first  section  of  the  second  story  was  begun. 
The  materials  were  all  brought  through  the  vineae  and  up 
the  stairs,  *  s,'  to  the  landing,  c  on,'  which  was  a  platform  ex- 
tending the  whole  width  of  the  agger,  thus  affording  easy 
access  to  the  gallery,  or  hall,  on  the  second  floor. 

104.  As  soon  as  the  second  section  of  the  first  story  was 
finished,  the  plutei  were  again  moved  forward,  and  the  third 
section  was  begun.    At  the  same  time,  the  plutei  on  the 
second  floor,  '  P,'  in  figure  2,  were  moved  forward,  and  the 
second  section  of  the  second  story  was  begun.     Plutei,  c  P,' 
were  then  placed  on  the  third  floor,  and  the  first  section  of 
the  third  story  was  begun.   This,  like  the  second,  was  reached 
by  stairs,  leading  to  the  landing,  which  furnished  access  to 
the  hall,  or  passage,  on  this  floor. 

105.  Thus  the  construction  of  the  agger  went  on ;  one 
section   after  another  was  added,  one  story  after  another, 
until  BCDE  was  finished.2    The  part  nearest  to  the  enemy, 
ABEF,  still  remained  to  be  filled  as  best  it  might.     Then 
through  all  the  halls  on  the  different  floors  were  brought 
logs,  stones,  brush,  fascines,  sods,  and  the  like,  and  were 
hurled  into  one  confused  mass,  until  the  space  was  filled. 
The  top  of  the  heap  was  next  hastily  levelled  off  and  made 
passable.     The  decisive  moment,  for  which  all  this  elaborate 
preparation  had  been  made,  had  at  length  arrived.     The 
archers  and  slingers  redoubled  their  efforts,  and  the  heavy 

*  The  timber  and  other  materials  were  brought  first  through  the  vineae, '  VV,' 
and  then  through  the  covered  gallery  in  the  first  section. 

2  The  enemy  often  attempted  to  prevent  the  completion  of  the  agger,  either 
by  setting  it  on  fire,  or  by  undermining  it  (Book  VII.,  22  and  24) ;  but,  if  he 
failed  in  this,  he  ordinarily  lost  courage,  and  surrendered  before  the  completion 
of  the  works.  Thus  the  Aduatuci  surrendered  when  they  saw  the  tower  ap- 
proaching the  wall :  see  Book  II.,  31. 


1XX  MILITARY   SYSTEM. 

artillery  swept  the  walls  with  its  missiles,  as  the  storming 
column  advanced  over  the  agger,  and  planted  the  Roman 
eagle  upon  the  enemy's  works. 

SHIPS  OF  WAR  —  Naves  Longae. 

106.  Caesar  had  no  organized  navy  during  his  Gallic 
campaigns,  but  he   built   ships   as  occasion  required,  and 
manned  them  with  his    legionary  soldiers.1     His  veteran 
legions  could  fight  either  on  land  or  sea. 

107.  The  Roman  ships  of  war  were  seven  or  eight  times 
as  long   as  they  were  wide,  and  were   accordingly  called 

'naves  longae,  in  distinction  from  the  transports,  naves 
onerariae*  which  were  much  shorter  in  proportion  to  their 
width.  They  were  armed  in  front  with  a  formidable  beak 
(rostrum),  with  which  they  often  pierced  and  sunk  the 
enemy's  ships.  Though  provided  with  sails,  they  were  pro- 
pelled chiefly  by  oars.  They  carried  the  usual  engines  of 
war,  the  tormenta,  were  furnished  with  grappling-irons,  and 
sometimes  had  towers  on  their  decks.  The  most  important 
varieties  were  the  triremes*  with  three  banks  of  oars,  and 
the  quinqueremes,  with  five  banks.4  See  plate  VI. 

1  Rowers  and  sailors  could  be  readily  obtained.    See  Book  III.,  9. 

*  The  naves  onerariae  were  transports,  or  ships  of  burden.    They  were  four 
times  as  long  as  they  were  wide  ;  they  were  propelled  chiefly  by  means  of  sails, 
although  supplied  with  oars  to  be  used  in  case  of  need. 

3  According  to  Graser,  a  trireme  was  149  feet  long,  with  a  deck  18  feet  wide, 
and  carried  232  tons  burden.  Without  the  use  of  sails,  it  had  24  horse-power, 
and  its  rate  of  speed  was  10  knots  an  hour.  The  oars  were  arranged  in  tiers  or 
banks,  those  in  the  upper  bank  being  13£  feet  long,  those  in  the  middle  bank  10J, 
and  those  in  the  lower  bank  7|. 

The  regular  complement  of  men  for  a  trireme  seems  to  have  been  225,  of  whom 
31  were  officers  and  soldiers,  20  sailors,  and  174  rowers  ;  for  a  quinquereme,  375,  of 
whom  310  were  rowers  ;  but  we  learn  on  the  authority  of  Polybius  that  the 
Romans  increased  the  number  of  soldiers,  and  that  the  quinqueremes  in  the 
Punic  wars  generally  had  each  120  soldiers  on  board. 

*  The  naves  actuariae  and  the  naves  speculatoriae,  also  called  (Book  TV.  26) 
specula'.oria  naviyia,  were  small  light  vessels  constructed  for  speed. 


PLAT.E      I. 


7.  Fuitditor.      2.  Ltvis  Armatwne- Pcdites .     3.JI*cgi<>nariiMilites. 
4-  Sarcijiac .      3 .  Equites-. 


PLATE     H. 


1.  Inwemtor. 

6.Biicinator. 


7. 


3.Centurio.    4*.Lictf>r    5  Signifert,. 
8.   Vexilhim  . 


PLATE    nr. 


J.  Mater t  a   nt/  Casfra  Miini&tcUtcdtriportatur.        2,  Captivi. 


PLATE  TV. 


,      1  . 


,      2.  Pzdes,     3.  Siynifer, 


UNIVERSITY 

OF 


OF  THE 

(  UNIVERSITY   ) 


Plate  VII.     VICTORY  OVER  THE  HELVETII.      I.  24—27, 


EXPLANATION. 

1.  Romans  in  line  of  battle  with  the  Helvetii(a,  a)  in  front  of  them. 

2.  The  first  two  of  the  Roman  lines  after  they  had  driven  hack  the  Helvetii  (6,  b) 

to  the  neighboring  hill. 

3.  The  third  line  with  the  Boil  and  Tulingi  (c)  in  front  of  it. 
U.  Two  new  legions  with  auxiliaries.    5.  Roman  camp. 

a.  Helvetii,  first  position,    b.  Helvetii,  second  position,    c.  Boii  and  Tulingi. 
d.  Helvetian  camp  defended  by  wagons,  chariots  and  baggage. 

mm^mmmm  Romans.  mm—m 


Plate  VIII.    VICTORY  OVER  ARIOVISTUS.        I.  42—51. 


MliHLHAUSEN/; 


EXPLANATION. 
1.   Caesar's  large  camp. 
#.   Caesar's  small  camp, 
a.  First  camp  of  Ariovistus. 
I).  Hill  on  which  Caesar  and  Ariovistus  met. 
c.  Second  camp  of  Ariovistus. 

— — —  Romans.  Germans. 

SCALE  OF  MILES 


THE 

!    UNIVERSITY 

OF 


or  THE 
{  UNIVERSITY 
w 


Plate  XL 


SIEGE  OF  OPPIDTJM  ADUATUCORUM.         II.  29—33. 


EXPLANATION. 
This  stronghold  of  the  Aduatuci  occupied  the  hill,  on  the  right  bank 

of  the  Sam&re,  which  now  forms  the  citadel  of  Namur. 
A.  Roman  Agger. 
T.  Turris  ambulatoria. 

C,  C.  Roman  contra vallation  with  numerous  redoubts. 
C,R.  Castra  Romana. 

D.  Double  wall  before  the  city. 

SCALE  OF  MILES 


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Plate  XV. 


EXPEDITION  AGAINST  LUTETIA.          VII.  57—62. 


o    v    a    c   i 

Dammartin 


EXPLANATION. 

Lutetia,  Paris;  Melodunum,  Melun;  Agedincum,  Sens 
Sequana,  The  Seine;  Matrona,  The  Marne;  Castra  Rom. 
Castro,  Romana;  Castra  Gall.,  Castra  Qallica. 


Plate  XVI.          VICTORY  OVER  VERCINGETORIX.  VII.  66,  67. 


EXPLANATION. 
A.,  A.    Roman  column  on  the  march. 

B.  Baggage  of  the  Romans. 

C.  Roman  camp  the  night  before  the  battle. 

D.  Roman  camp  the  night  after  the  battle. 
e.     Caesar's  cavalry  in  three  divisions. 

E.  German  cavalry  in  Caesar's  service. 
g.     The  enemy's  cavalry. 

G.    The  enemy's  infantry  in  line  of  battle. 
V.  The  three  camps  of  Vercingetorix. 


UNIVERSITY 

_          OF 


TITLES   OF  WORKS   CITED 

ON   THE  MILITARY  SYSTEM  OF  THE  ROMANS. 


FROHLICH,  F.    Beitrdge  zur  Geschichte  der  Kriegsfuhrung  und  Kriegs- 

kunst  der  Homer.    Berlin,  1886. 
GOLER,  A.  VON.     Caesars  gallischer  Krieg  und  das  romische  Kriegswesen, 

Freiburg,  1884. 

GKASER,  B.    De  Veterum  Re  Navali.    Berolini. 
GUHL  UND  KONEK.     Das  Leben  der  Griechen  und  Homer  nach  antiken 

Bildenverken. 

HYGINUS.    Liber  de  munitionibus  castronlm. 

JAHNS,  M.    Handbuch  einer  Geschichte  des  Kriegswesens.    Leipzig,  1880. 
KOCHLY  UND  RUSTOW.     GriecJiische  Krieg  sschriftsteller. 
LANGE,  C.  C.  L.    Historia  Mutationum  Rei  Militaris  Romanorum. 
LINDENSCHMIT,  L.     Trticht  und  Bewaffnung  des  romischen  Heeres. 
LIYY,  The  Works  of. 

MARQUARDT,  J.    Romische  Staatsverwaltung. 
MOMMSEN,  T.     History  of  Rome. 
NAPOLEON  III.    History  of  Julius  Caesar. 
NISSEN,  H.    Das  Temphnn. 
POT.YBIUS,   The  Works  of. 

RHEINHARD,  H.     Caesaris  Commentarii  deBello  Gallico.    Stuttgart,  1885. 
RHEINHARD,  H.     Griechischc  und  romische  Krieg salterthumer. 
RUSTOW  UND  KOCHLY.     Geschichte  des  c/riechischen  Kriegswesens. 
RUSTOW,  "W.     Heerwesen  und  Kriegfiihrung  Casars. 
SONKLAR,  R.  A.    Abhandlung  uber  die  Heeresverwaltung  der  alien  Romer. 
SHAMBACH.    Einige  Bemerkungen  uber  die  Geschiitzverwendung  bei  den 

Homern,  besonders  zur  Zeit  Caesars.     Altenburg,  1883. 
VEGETIUS.     Epitoma  Rei  Militaris. 

Ixxi. 


PROFESSOR   HARKNESS'S   LATIN   TEXT- 
BOOKS. 


A  Complete  Latin  Course  for  the  First  Year  contains  a  series 
of  simple  exercises  progressively  arranged,  together  with  numerous 
exercises  and  passages  intended  for  practice  in  sight-reading  and 
composition  exercise  ;  also  a  Grammatical  Outline,  in  the  exact  form 
and  language  in  which  they  occur  in  Harkmss's  Standard  Latin 
Grammar.  It  is  designed  to  serve  as  a  complete  introductory  book 
in  Latin,  no  other  grammar  being  required. 

Progressive   Exercises   in    Beading   and    Writing    Latin, 
with  Frequent  Practice  in  Beading   at  Sight,  intended 
as  a  companion-book  to  Harkness's  Standard  Latin  Grammar. 
This  and  the  preceding  contain  numerous  notes  and  suggestions,  and 

an  adequate  Latin-English  and  English-Latin  Dictionary. 

An  Introductory  Latin  Book.     Intended  as  an  Elementary  Drill- 
Book  on  the  Inflections  and  Principles  of  the  Language.     12mo. 
This  work  gives  a  distinct  outline  of  the  whole  grammar,  with  exer- 
cises in  translation  from  each  language  into  the  other,  suggestions  to  the 
learner,  notes,  and  vocabularies,  and  prepares  the  way  to  both  the  read- 
ing and  the  writing  of  easy  classic  Latin. 

A  Latin  Grammar.     For  Schools  and  Colleges.     Edition  of  1874. 

12mo. 
A  Latin  Grammar.     For  Schools  and  Colleges.    Standard  edition  of 

1881.     12mo. 

This  is  a  complete,  philosophical,  and  attractive  work.  It  presents  a 
systematic  arrangement  of  the  great  facts  and  laws  of  the  language,  ex- 
hibiting not  only  the  grammatical  forms  and  constructions,  but  also  those 
vital  principles  which  underlie,  control,  and  explain  them. 

The  Elements  of  Latin  Grammar.     For  Schools.     12mo. 

A  New  Latin  Beader.     With  Exercises  in  Latin  Composition,  in- 
tended as  a  Companion  to  the  Author's  Latin  Grammar.      With 
References,  Suggestions,  Notes,  and  Vocabularies.     12mo. 
The  "  New  Reader  "  differs  from  the  "  Reader  "  in  two  respects.     The 
first  parts  of  the  two  books  are  wholly  different.     The  New  has  in  this 
part  alternating  exercises  in  translation  both  ways  from  one  language 
into  the  other,  with  numbered  references  to  the  "  Grammar  "  at  every 
step.     The  second  part  is  substantially  the  same  in  both  books,  except 
that  nine  of  the  Latin  sections  in  the  Old  are  removed,  and  their  places 
in  the  New  filled  with  English  to  be  translated  into  Latin. 

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